165
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

The body speaks Italian: Giuseppe Liceti and the conflict of philosophy and medicine in the Renaissance

Pages 473-492 | Published online: 03 May 2017
 

ABSTRACT

Giuseppe Liceti (d. 1599) has been entirely forgotten in the history of philosophy. This article seeks to demonstrate that Liceti’s two vernacular dialogues are crucial sources for understanding the Renaissance debate on the conflict between medicine and philosophy. Liceti’s main dialogue, La nobiltà (1590), stages a contest about the nobility of the main bodily organs, which I discuss by placing it in its medical and literary context. I then proceed to expounding Liceti’s interpretation of the conflict between Galenism and Aristotelianism, and trace the specific topic of the seat of rationality in the body. In the conclusion I claim that the outcome of the contest in La nobiltà is not as obvious as it might seem, and that Liceti implies an alternative conclusion to the “official” one. This opens up a different scenario with regard to the interpretation of human uniqueness from medical and philosophical points of view.

Acknowledgements

Earlier versions of this article were presented at the Conference of the Society of Italian Studies (28–30 September 2015), and at a seminar on “Vernacular Aristotelianism in the Renaissance: From Politics to Medicine in Sixteenth-Century Italy”, organized by the Aristoteleszentrum and the Italienzentrum, Freie Universität Berlin, 26 November 2015. I wish to thank all participants for their useful remarks. I warmly thank Simon Gilson, Alessandra Aloisi and David Lines for their comments on a later version of the same essay. I also gratefully acknowledge the help of two anonymous readers whose suggestions have improved the essay. All translations are my own unless stated otherwise.

Notes on contributor

Cecilia Muratori is a historian of philosophy. She received her double-degree PhD from the Universities of Jena and Urbino in 2009. She was LMUexcellent Research Fellow at LMU Munich, Ahmanson Fellow at Villa I Tatti - The Harvard Center for Italian Renaissance Studies, and is now Research Fellow at the University of Warwick. She is the author of “The First German Philosopher”: The Mysticism of Jacob Böhme as Interpreted by Hegel (Springer, 2016), and co-editor of Ethical Perspectives on Animals in the Renaissance and Early Modern Period (Micrologus' Library, 2013) and of Early Modern Philosophers and the Renaissance Legacy (Springer, 2016).

Notes

1. Liceti, Nobiltà, 8–9.

2. See e.g. De Renzi, Storia della medicina in Italia, vol. 3, 288 and vol. 4, 169. References to Liceti’s theory of generation appear in Brownlee and Finucci, Generation and Degeneration, 54; and Finucci, The Manly Masquerade, 133. Il Ceva featured in the library of Francesco Cesi: Biagetti, La biblioteca di Francesco Cesi, 70.

3. See Bronzino, Notitia doctorum, 97 and Giustiniani, Gli scrittori liguri, 484.

4. The story is well known. See, for instance, Bates, Emblematic Monsters, 78.

5. See letter to Galileo, 5 June 1640 (Galilei, Commercio epistolare, 389). On the correspondence between Fortunio Liceti and Galilei see Marangio, “I problemi della scienza nei carteggio Liceti-Galileo”. For essential information on Fortunio’s life and works see Lohr, “Latin Aristotle Commentaries II. Renaissance Authors,” 222–3.

6. Fortunio’s works are also a source of information about Giuseppe Liceti’s life, of which not many details are otherwise known: see Liceti, De propriorum operum historia, 5 and 8–9. About Giuseppe’s work in Corsica see Liceti, Hieroglyphica, 379–80.

7. On Fotunio Liceti’s theory of generation see De Angelis, Anthropologien, 195–6; and Blank, “Material Souls and Imagination,” and on Fortunio’s conceptions of matter and soul see Blank, “Fortunio Liceti on Mind”. Specifically on Liceti’s critique of Marsilio Ficino see Hirai, Medical Humanism, 123–50.

8. Bell, Review of Finucci, V. The Manly Masquerade, 244. See also Bell, How to Do It, 57, where Liceti’s works are considered to be an instance of “degradation” in the popular diffusion of medical knowledge.

9. The view that philosophy in the vernacular did not reach the level of refinement and complexity of philosophical works in Latin is now being challenged by a growing body of scholarship: see Lines, “Beyond Latin in Renaissance Philosophy”; Lines and Refini, “Aristotele fatto volgare”; and Bianchi, Gilson, and Kraye, Interpreting Aristotle.

10. Liceti, Nobiltà, 10.

11. According to Caroti, “L’Aristotele italiano,” Italian is the only vernacular language in which a systematic presentation of Aristotelian natural philosophy took shape (see also Bianchi, “Per una storia dell’aristotelismo ‘volgare’ nel Rinascimento”, 377).

12. I suggest that Liceti’s dialogue should be included in Luca Bianchi’s list of exemplary Renaissance dialogues presenting selected aspects of Aristotelian philosophy (Bianchi, “From Jacques d’Étaples to Giulio Landi,” 43). On the genre of dialogue see e.g. Cox, The Renaissance Dialogue.

13. There is only space here to refer to the well-known issue of the possibility of reconciling Aristotelianism with the teaching of anatomy in universities: Randall, “The Development of Scientific Method,” 182; Cunningham, “Fabricius and the ‘Aristotle Project’”.

14. For an overview of Renaissance debates on the human/animal border see Muratori, The Animal Soul and the Human Mind. On the ethical implications in particular see Muratori and Dohm, Ethical Perspectives on Animals in the Renaissance and Early Modern Period.

15. Liceti, Nobiltà, 9.

16. Liceti, Ceva, 3–4.

17. Liceti, Nobiltà, 5, 8.

18. Ibid., 5.

19. On Bartolomeo Della Torre, see Giustiniani, Gli scrittori liguri, 123.

20. Liceti, Ceva, 6: “Non si maravigli alcuno se questo trattato si manda fuori nella nostra volgar lingua, per che so ben’ io […] che egli sarebbe stato meglio nella latina; ma mi è paruto di lasciarlo così uscire, per essere difesa di un’altro mio Dialogo quasi dell’istessa materia, dato fuori pure in volgare; & tanto più facilmente mi sono a ciò indotto, non contendendo egli termini sconci, ne meno che honesti”.

21. Ibid., dedication to Alessandro Spinola, 3: “trovandomi quasi astretto a difendermi da chi a torto lacerava i miei scritti”.

22. See ibid., 3–4.

23. Liceti, Nobiltà, 17: “Hor voltate carta, Signor Cuore, e sentite un poco se noi ancora sappiamo far il nostro Latino”.

24. Liceti, Ceva, 9.

25. Livy, Ab urbe condita, II.32.

26. Liceti, De mundi et hominis analogia, 126 and 123.

27. See Avicenna, Canon (in Gruner, A Treatise), § 123.

28. On Galen’s account of the tripartition of the soul see Debru, “Physiology,” 268. On the problems deriving from this overlap of physiology and psychology see Gill, “Galen and the Stoics,” 419. On the history of this physiological model see Nutton, Ancient Medicine, 299, and 118 for its Platonic roots.

29. See Siraisi, Medieval and Renaissance Medicine, 107, and Siraisi, Avicenna in Renaissance Italy, 28 and 30.

30. See Schauwecker, “La diététique dans les Secrets des secrets,” especially 130.

31. Tagliacozzi became famous for his surgical procedure of rhinoplasty, so his emphasis on the nobility of the face is instrumental to the justification of his method. Finucci, The Prince’s Body, 72–4. On the details of Tagliacozzi’s method see Gadebusch-Bondio, Medizinische Ästhetik, 148–53.

32. See Varchi, Lezioni, vol. 1, 11.

33. See ibid., 10.

34. See Andreoni, “Sangue perfetto,” 157.

35. See Varchi, Lezioni, vol. 1, 22 and 28.

36. See ibid., 16: “i testicoli, secondo Aristotile, servono solamente per instrumento, e sono, secondo lui, come due piombi o pesi che tengono aperti i vasi spermatici ovvero seminarii”.

37. On the aim of the text, see ibid., 10, and 26, where Varchi avoids siding clearly with either Aristotle or Galen, when he considers the evidence to be unclear.

38. Ibid., 36 on the “potenze della materia” as opposed to the “anima razionale, ovvero intelletto umano”.

39. See Andreoni, La via della dottrina, 110.

40. Liceti, Ceva, 8.

41. See ibid., 11.

42. On Galen’s position against the backdrop of Aristotelianism see Donini, “Psychology,” 189.

43. On the intertwining of philosophical and medical approaches to anatomy in the Renaissance, see Carlino, Books of the Body, 121–8.

44. See Wear, “Galen in the Renaissance”; Schmitt, “Aristotle among the Physicians”; Connell, Aristotle on Female Animals; and Mayhew, The Female in Aristotle’s Biology.

45. Leijenhorst, Review of Bianchi, 354.

46. Liceti, Nobiltà, 5.

47. See Generation of Animals II.2–3 (736b35–737a5). On the afterlives of the parallel between the sun and the heart see Guerrini, Experimenting with Humans and Animals, 30.

48. On the seat of the passions in Platonic philosophy see Moss, “Pictures and Passions”.

49. Liceti, Nobiltà, 8. In the lecture “Sopra il primo canto del Paradiso” Varchi had summarized the same opposition between Galen and Plato, on the one hand, and Aristotle, on the other: Varchi, Lezioni, vol. 1, 240. Of course, the eclectic approach to combining, and harmonizing, Plato and Aristotle with regard to psychology was very widespread in Renaissance literature. A notable example is the conception of the seat of specific faculties in Donato Acciaiuoli’s Commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics (see Kraye, Cambridge Translations of Renaissance Philosophical Texts, 48).

50. Liceti, Nobiltà, 33. See Timaeus 69c–71d.

51. Liceti, Nobiltà, 36–7: “E tu lasciaci stare, né ci toccare sull’honore”.

52. Ibid., 5. On Tagliacozzi see also Santoni-Rugiu and Sykes, A History of Plastic Surgery, 185–95.

53. Liceti, Nobiltà, 40: “Onde non ti gloriare se bene ha detto Platone che tu sei origine delle vene, perch’egli qui intende di quelle vene ch’ora i più moderni insieme con Galeno domandano arterie, cioè che pulsano, delle quali tu sei veramente origine […] ma delle vene che non pulsano, e che quietamente portano il sangue a tutte le parti del corpo son io fonte e origine”.

54. Ibid., 45.

55. Parts of Animals III.4 (666b15). On the use of neuron by Galen see Longrigg, Greek Rational Medicine, 192, and 62 on the anatomical discoveries regarding the origin of the nerves from the brain.

56. Liceti, Nobiltà, 46.

57. Ibid., 47: “Aristotele in questa parte non sa quel ch’egli si dica”.

58. See Generation of Animals V.7 (787b11–19). See Liceti, Nobiltà, 46–7. On the reception of the Aristotelian theory regarding the role of nerves, see Tuominen, The Ancient Commentators on Plato and Aristotle, 174–6.

59. Liceti, Nobiltà, 25–6: “per auttorità dello stesso tuo Aristotele, vive l’huomo di tre sorti di vite, e l’una subordinata e dante luogo all’altra. Prima vive come le piante, cioè per solo nodrimento; poi vive come animale, aggiungendo il senso alla vegetativa facoltà; e ultimamente vive, come huomo, alla venuta del corpo, dell’anima ragionevole, che di fuori viene, e non dalla materia, sì come l’altre due anime”.

60. Ibid., 26: “ti muovi di movimento oscuro ed imperfetto, somigliante a quello delle ostreche, delle madreperle, e de’ conchigli marini, e simili altre nature mezane fra le piante, e gli animali che da’ Greci son chiamati zoophiti”.

61. Ibid., 29–30: “Queste tue ragioni non son ragioni, ma chimere di Medicucci affumicati, e di Anatomisti poltroni. Aristotele voglio io […] e non Galeni!”

62. On the position of the heart see Parts of Animals III.4 (666a11–17). On the afterlives of Aristotle’s theory about the position of the heart see Pagel, New Light on William Harvey, 31.

63. Ibid., 70–1. See Parts of Animals II.7 (652a28–30) on the brain being the coldest part of the body. See also Generation of Animals II.6 (743b26–32), where Aristotle explains that the heart is the first organ to be formed in the body because it is the origin of sensation.

64. Liceti, Nobiltà, 72.

65. Ibid., 43. On the 1530 edition of Agrippa’s text see EDIT16 nr. CNCE 545. See also Maclean, The Renaissance Notion of Women.

66. See Longrigg, Greek Medicine, 91–2. For the use of “testes” to mean “ovaries” in Renaissance literature, see Finucci, The Manly Masquerade, 269. See also Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine, 107. Galen often refers to the uterus in the plural, as a “double organ” (bicornuate uterus): see Galen, On the Usefulness, Book XIV, § 1 (p. 620).

67. See e.g. Liceti, Nobiltà, 20.

68. It was commonplace that castration renders an animal meek. Leonardo da Vinci’s notes on this phenomenon are particularly clear: “[the testicles] contain in themselves ardour that is they are augmenters of the animosity and ferocity of the animals”, adding that “experience shows us this clearly in the castrated animals”. Leonardo da Vinci, The Notebooks, 120.

69. Liceti, Ceva, 23. “Ma delle donne, che ne dite voi? non ponno già esse per la nuova castratione cambiar la loro in peggior natura”.

70. Ibid. See also Generation of Animals V.7 (787b20–23).

71. Parts of Animals II.7 (653a28–653b5).

72. Parts of Animals II.7 (653a27–30).

73. Liceti, Nobiltà, 70: “Et è falso ch’io di più grandezza sia nell’huomo, che nella donna, e che perciò siano più commissure nel capo di esso, che della donna. Chiarisciti meglio di questo fatto, non con Aristotele, che mai non mi vidde, ma con Galeno, co’l Vesalio, Realdo Colombo e co’l Falloppio, peritissimi anatomisti, e vedrai che t’inganni di grosso”.

74. Ibid., 38.

75. Ibid.: “Hor vedi tu che Platone istesso, conforme al mio Aristotele, dice ch’io sono il fonte del sangue e origine delle vene, e per conseguenza ch’io sono il seggio di quella facoltà che dette vene, come instromenti portano a tutto il corpo?”

76. See ibid., 39–40.

77. Ibid., 39.

78. Ibid., 45: “Io dico adunque, che perche io sono sedia dell’anima rationale; principio della facoltà animale, origine del moto, e del senso; che perciò dico, io sono senza paragone alcuno molto più di te nobile”.

79. Ibid., 53: “La onde perche in me siede la memoria, la cogitativa, l’imaginativa, vengo insieme ad esser di te più nobile”.

80. Ibid., 53: “Si conoscer anco l’animal vivere come animale dal moto e dal senso, come corpo animato dalla nutritione, e come huomo dalla ragione”.

81. See Galen, The Affections and Errors of the Soul, 141: “when this [the rational faculty] is well exercised and achieves its own good condition, the subject is far happier than those who are slaves to bodily pleasures. The other faculties of our souls do not make us any different from goats and dogs, or pigs, sheep, or donkeys”.

82. Ceva, Lettione, B2v: “la felicità dunque è il naturale, proprio e ultimo fine dell’huomo, per lo quale, e allo quale è stato creato”. See the reference to Ceva’s lecture, delivered in Pisa, in Sauli Carrega, Epistolarum libri tres, 13.

83. Ceva, Lettione, B1v: “ragione, della quale egli è dotato, e della quale gli altri animali ne sono affatto privi (che che si dica qualche sciocco Medico)”.

84. Ibid., B1r: “lasciando per hora il lume Cristiano, che solo con ragioni naturali voglio discorrere”.

85. Ibid., B3v: “È veramente pare in questo dalla natura peggio trattato l’huomo che non sono gli animali bruti. Percioche questi mai non errano nel suo fine, e l’huomo mille errori vi può commettere, ellegendo bene spesso il suo peggio, o perche non sanno, o perche non vogliono”.

86. Ibid., C1v: “Che voci non di huomo, ma di bestia son queste, che si odono. Nel diletto corporale trouarsi la vera felicitade?”

87. Liceti, Nobiltà, 59.

88. Ibid., 71. See Timaeus 44d2–5.

89. Ibid., 60.

90. See ibid., 53.

91. Liceti, Ceva, 9: “Dicono pur cose assai. E tra l’altre biasimano ch’egli habbia posto tra le parti principali e nobili dell’huomo i Genitali, e che gli habbia lodati sopra il Cuore, & attribuito loro più usi assai di quello che ch’essi genitali habbiano”.

92. Ibid., 14: “CEV. State in cervello, e studiate di non contradirvi, poc’anzi diceste che principale non suona origine, e principio d’altre parti, hora voi anteponete il Cervello a gli altri membri che così nobili non sono, perche da essi altre parti non nascono. Nel che anco al parer mio contradite il Liceti, perche s’io non male aviso, nella sua Nobiltà de’ membri ei fece il Cuore capo & origine delle arterie, & il fegato delle vene”. See Della Torre’s critique of this view, ibid., 21.

93. Ibid., 45: “CEV. A questa maniera donque si potrebbe dire, che’l seme dell’huomo fusse huomo, e che l’huomo generi in se huomo, quando genera il suo seme”.

94. Ibid., 56: “quei che dicono cose contra la verità, cioè contra quel che dimostra l’esperienza e la ragione insieme non curandosi di dir bugie, pur che parlino in favor d’Aristotele, o d’altro scrittore c’habbino preso a difendere, meritariano che lor fossero tronchi que’ duo nervi a traverso senza pietà alcuna, accioche non potessero più per l’avvenire seminar errori nelle menti degli ancora ignoranti”.

95. Ibid., 18: “Se tu dai, come dici, il vivere, e noi diamo il ben vivere”. See Galen, On the Usefulness, Book XIV, §1 (p. 620), where the organs of generation are distinguished both from those necessary for life (encephalon, heart, liver), and those necessary for a better life (eyes, ears, nostrils).

96. Liceti, Nobiltà, 19.

97. On Length and Shortness of Life V (466b5–9), where the emission of seed is considered a factor in shortening the lifespan. On the dangers of lust (lagneia) for health, see also the pseudo-Aristotelian Problems (Book I: iv.21 and iv.18; on the potential benefits see Book I: iv.16).

98. Ketham, Fasciculo, D5v. See also Park, Secrets of Women, 27–33.

99. The vernacular choice of Liceti is invested with patriotic intentions by Spotorno, Storia letteraria della Liguria, vol. 3, 224.

100. Liceti, Nobiltà, 56.

Additional information

Funding

Research for this article was supported by the ERC Starting Grant 2013 – 335949 “Aristotle in the Italian Vernacular: Rethinking Renaissance and Early-Modern Intellectual History (c. 1400–c. 1650)”.

Log in via your institution

Log in to Taylor & Francis Online

PDF download + Online access

  • 48 hours access to article PDF & online version
  • Article PDF can be downloaded
  • Article PDF can be printed
USD 53.00 Add to cart

Issue Purchase

  • 30 days online access to complete issue
  • Article PDFs can be downloaded
  • Article PDFs can be printed
USD 185.00 Add to cart

* Local tax will be added as applicable

Related Research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.