Mechanisms for handling uncertainty in sensorimotor control in sports: a scoping review

Figures & data

Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram for the literature search.

Table 1. Studies on mechanisms for handling uncertainties in sensorimotor control in sports, sorted by mechanism and ordered alphabetically.

Mechanism	#	Author(s)	Sport	Task	Type	Main Findings
Multisensory integration	1	Ankarali et al. (2014)	Juggling	Juggling a virtual ball on a screen with a paddle	N = 18 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Additional haptic feedback enhanced juggling performance.
	2	Cañal-Bruland et al. (2018)	Tennis	Predicting the ball’s location in occluded videos of rallies	N = 23 experienced players, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Louder tennis stroke sounds were associated with predictions of farther ball flight distances.
	3	Gray (2009)	Baseball	Batting virtual baseballs in video-based situations	N1 = 10, N2 = 16 experts, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Visual feedback was given more weight when incongruent with auditory or tactile feedback.
	4	Heinen et al. (2014)	Trampoline	Vertical jumping in synchronisation with a partner	N = 20 experts, quasi-experimental field study, within-subject design	Jump synchronisation was achieved faster when only visual peripheral information was available than when only auditory information was given. Synchronisation was achieved the fastest when both visual and auditory information was available.
	5	Kennel et al. (2015)	Hurdling	Running as fast as possible with manipulated auditory feedback	N = 20 novices, quasi-experimental field study, within-subject design	Performance degraded with delayed auditory feedback, though it could be compensated in later trials.
	6	Krabben et al. (2018)	Judo	Fighting with and without a blindfold	N = 24 experts, quasi-experimental field study, within-subject design	Impaired vision decreased judo performance.
	7	O'Brien et al. (2020)	Golf	Hitting occluded golf balls with the sonification of the club movement	N = 20 novices, quasi-experimental field study, within-subject design	Sonification of the golf club’s speed significantly reduced the variability in the distance from the target and ball location estimation.
	8	O'Brien et al. (2021)	Golf	Hitting golf balls with the sonification of the club movement	N = 40 novices, quasi-experimental field study, between + within-subject design	Online error-based sonification feedback with personalised mean velocity profiles reduced variability in the execution and timing of the swing movement more than auditory guidance.
	9	Petri et al. (2020)	Table tennis	Playing strokes under normal or impaired hearing conditions	N1 = 15 novices, N2 = 13 advanced players, quasi-experimental field study, within-subject design	Impaired auditory information did not influence hit quality and subjective effort, neither for novices nor for advanced players.
	10	Santello et al. (2001)	Drop jumps	Conducting jumps from different heights with or without vision	N = 8 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	The same force patterns were revealed to absorb the jump with or without vision. However, the landing was less smooth, and there was higher intra-individual variability in the force patterns without vision.
	11	Schaffert et al. (2020)	Rowing	Rowing with a target frequency with normal or masked hearing	N = 20 experts, quasi-experimental field study, within-subject design	The masked auditory information led to an increased deviation of the target stroke frequency.
	12	Sinnett and Kingstone (2010)	Tennis	Anticipating the stroke direction from video and sound	N = 33 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Additional sound of white noise affected accuracy and slowed down the response time.
	13	Sors et al. (2018)	Volleyball	Predicting a serve’s length as fast and as accurately as possible	N1 = 21, N2 = 21, N3 = 17 advanced players, experimental lab study, within-subject design	With incongruent auditory and visual stimuli, players’ predictions followed the auditory information. Only with auditory information the prediction accuracy was higher than chance.
	14	Sors et al. (2017)	Soccer and Volleyball	Anticipating the speed of occluded penalties and smashes	N1 = 18, N2 = 17 advanced players, experimental lab study, within-subject design	When only auditory information was provided, the response time was shorter than for videos without audio. In videos without audio, participants were better than chance at guessing the ball speed. Visual, in addition to auditory information, did not improve the accuracy of speed estimation.
	15	Takeuchi (1993)	Tennis	Playing tennis under normal or impaired hearing conditions	N = 3 advanced players, explorative field study, within-subject design	The players lost more games with earplugs and were less successful in performing returns.
	16	Zelic et al. (2012)	Juggling	Juggling with vibrotactile or auditory feedback	N = 7 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Jugglers’ performance improved with the addition of well-scaled auditory and tactile cues.
Prior-knowledge integration	17	Abernethy et al. (2001)	Squash	Returning serves with occluded vision	N = 12 (6 experts, 6 less-skilled players), quasi-experimental field study (no inferential statistics)	Only the experts could exploit context information about situational probabilities in cases of early occlusion of kinematic information to initiate movements in the appropriate direction better than chance.
	18	Arthur and Harris (2021)	Racket sport	Returning bouncing virtual balls	N = 54 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	The recent context was more important in the unexpected uncertainty situation than in the expected volatile environment. The gaze behaviour was in line with the simulated predictions of an optimal Bayes integrator.
	19	Berg and Hughes (2017)	Ball catching	Catching vertically dropped balls of different weights	N = 28 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	When the ball’s weight was unknown, participants showed relatively constant muscle activations for different weights at a level equivalent to the muscle activation for an intermediate weight in the known weight condition.
	20	Berg and Hughes (2020)	Ball catching	Catching vertically dropped balls of different weights	N = 29 novices, experimental lab study, between + within-subject design	When the ball’s weight was unknown, participants showed relatively constant muscle activation with different weights at a level equivalent to the muscle activation for the heaviest weight in the known weight condition.
	21	Crognier and Féry (2005)	Tennis	Conducting volleys with occluded vision	N = 17 experts, quasi-experimental field study, within-subject design	The higher the player's tactical initiative, the higher the accuracy of the opponent's anticipated stroke. Controlling rallies reduced the number of options the opponent had, which increased the likelihood of accurate anticipation.
	22	Eckerle et al. (2012)	Ball catching	Catching vertically dropped balls of different weights	N = 29 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	When the ball’s weight was unknown, participants showed relatively constant muscle activation with different weights at a level equivalent to the muscle activation for an intermediate weight in the known weight condition.
	23	Farrow and Reid (2012)	Tennis	Predicting the ball’s location from videos	N = 29 experts (15 late teens, 14 early teens), experimental lab study, between-subject design	Experts benefitted from situational probability information based on the current game score to decrease their response time. This effect was only found in the older athletes.
	24	Gray (2002)	Baseball	Batting virtual baseballs in video-based situations	N = 6 experienced players, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Prior expectations affected the timing of the baseball swing. A two-state Markov model, which considers the preceding state to predict the current state with fixed transition probabilities, worked well for modelling participants’ error prediction.
	25	Gray and Cañal-Bruland (2018)	Baseball	Batting virtual baseballs in video-based situations	N1 = 20, N2 = 20 experts, experimental lab study, within-subject design	The contextual information about the probability of a fast/curved ball had a greater impact on the number of successful hits under earlier rather than later occlusion conditions. The number of successful hits was higher when the probabilities of the different throws were not equally distributed.
	26	Gredin et al. (2018)	Soccer	Predicting the outcome of virtual 2:2 counterattacks	N = 31 (16 experts, 15 novices), experimental lab study, between + within-subject design	Experts profited from explicit knowledge about the action tendencies in congruent trials but not from knowledge that had to be acquired implicitly. In incongruent trials, explicit knowledge had a higher negative impact on anticipatory judgments in novices than in experts.
	27	Gredin, Bishop, et al. (2020)	Soccer	Predicting the outcome of virtual 2:2 counterattacks	N = 15 experts, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Explicit contextual prior information improved performance. This effect decreased when the reliability of the kinematic information increased. Only explicit prior knowledge with high reliability enhanced performance when the reliability of the kinematic information was also high.
	28	Gredin, Broadbent, et al. (2020)	Soccer	Predicting the outcome of virtual 2:2 counterattacks	N = 15 experts, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Explicit contextual prior information improved performance. This effect decreased with increased cognitive task load.
	29	Gredin et al. (2019)	Soccer	Predicting the outcome of virtual 2:2 counterattacks	N = 18 experts, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Explicit contextual prior information improved performance. Judgment utility reduced this effect and let the focus switch to the highest reward and the most minor loss.
	30	Gülden-penning et al. (2023)	Basketball	Predicting the direction of virtual passes with or without head-fake	N1 = 31, N2 = 32 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Implicit and explicit information about action-outcome probabilities increased the head-fake effect with increasing outcome probability. The tendency to respond in accordance with the player's head direction increased linearly with its outcome probability.
	31	Güldenpenning et al. (2018)	Basketball	Slapping a ball of regular or disguised virtual passes	N = 68 novices, experimental lab study, between-subject design	With a low frequency of disguised passes, the reaction time was shorter, and the deception effect in terms of more errors was higher than when the frequency of disguised passes was high.
	32	Harris et al. (2022)	Racket sport	Returning bouncing virtual balls	N = 44 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	A hierarchical Bayesian inference model explained anticipatory eye movements better than a simple associative learning model. Pupillary signalling of surprise was associated with estimates of precision-weighted prediction error and learning rates, however, not with beliefs about the volatility of the bouncing ball.
	33	Helm et al. (2020)	Handball	Deciding whether morphed penalty throws are genuine or disguised	N = 23 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Explicit information about the action preferences affected the classification of genuine and disguised throws. This effect was commensurate with the different degrees of ambiguity. When there was low kinematic uncertainty, the explicit information about action tendencies had no influence.
	34	Jackson et al. (2020)	Soccer	Intercepting an approaching virtual opponent	N = 30 (15 experts, 15 novices), experimental lab study, within-subject design	Explicit probability information regarding prior expectations affected performance, especially when aligned with a faked direction. Deceptive actions got ‘super-deceptive’ as a confirmation bias. For experts, the negative effects outweighed the positive effects.
	35	Leukel et al. (2012)	Fitness	Conducting drop jumps or landings	N = 10 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	The muscle activity differed for the conditions with and without uncertainty in task execution. The possibility for a landing reduced muscle activity because less muscle activity is required for a landing than for a drop jump.
	36	Loffing and Hagemann (2014)	Tennis	Anticipating the directions of occluded baseline shots	N = 52 (26 experts, 26 novices), Experimental lab study, between-subject design	Experts outperformed novices, and both groups improved under later occlusion conditions. Experts relied more on the opponents’ court position in early occlusion time. Novices showed by tendency the same behaviour but less distinctively.
	37	Loffing et al. (2016)	Tennis	Anticipating the directions of occluded baseline shots	N = 40 (20 experts, 20 novices) experimental lab study, between-subject design	Experts outperformed novices, and both groups improved under later occlusion conditions. The opponent's court position was only relevant in the early stage of the movement but not anymore at the moment of racket-ball contact.
	38	Loffing et al. (2015)	Volleyball	Predicting the type of attack in different contexts	N = 51 (20 experts, 31 novices), experimental lab study, between-subject design	Both groups expected a continuation of the currently played pattern. The prediction accuracy was higher in congruent trials, and the response time was shorter than in incongruent trials. The congruence effect was slightly higher for experts than for novices.
	39	Magnaguagno and Hossner (2020)	Handball	Acting as a central defender in virtual video-based situations	N = 24 (12 experts, 12 near experts), experimental lab study, between/within-subject design	All players improved in terms of explicit reports of their teammates' defensive quality and the correctness of their movements. Experts outperformed near experts in all aspects and benefited from a superior self-generated, implicit knowledge base.
	40	Magnaguagno et al. (2022)	Handball	Acting as a central defender in virtual video-based situations	N = 57 (30 youth elite, 27 youth near-elite players), experimental lab study, between-subject design	Providing explicit information improved performance in congruent but impaired performance in incongruent trials. This effect of providing explicit knowledge diminished over time due to the accumulation of implicit knowledge.
	41	Mann et al. (2014)	Handball	Predicting the direction of virtual handball throws	N = 20 experts, experimental lab study, between-subject design	Implicitly learned priors helped to improve the goalkeeper’s chance to save the ball in congruent trials but decreased performance in incongruent trials.
	42	McIntyre et al. (2001)	Ball catching	Catching balls on Earth or in space	N = 4 novices, explorative field study, within-subject design	The peak muscle activation was earlier in space than on Earth according to the time of contact with the ball, meaning that the lack of gravity could not be fully adjusted.
	43	Milazzo et al. (2016)	Karate	Reacting to fighting attacks	N = 28 (14 experts, 14 novices), quasi-experimental field study, between-subject design	Only experts enhanced their performance in terms of faster and more accurate responses from the implicitly acquired context regarding repeated attacks every four actions.
	44	Misirlisoy and Haggard (2014)	Soccer	Saving penalties	N = 361 penalties (FIFA World Cups, UEFA Euro Cups), explorative field study	Goalkeepers showed a pattern of a gambler’s fallacy by choosing the left or right side, which is not optimal because the kickers showed a pattern close to randomness.
	45	Murphy et al. (2016)	Tennis	Predicting the ball’s location in normal and animated videos	N = 36 (16 experts, 20 novices), experimental lab study, between-subject design	When provided only with contextual information and no postural information about the opponent, experts and novices were able to anticipate shots better than by chance. Both groups performed better with the addition of the opponent’s postural information.
	46	Murphy et al. (2018)	Tennis	Predicting the ball’s location in animated videos	N1 = 24, N2 = 24 (12 experts, 12 novices), experimental lab study, between-subject design	Contextual information related to the opponent was weighted more than contextual information related to the ball. However, players integrated all available information sources when making decisions.
	47	Navia et al. (2013)	Soccer	Saving penalties	N = 9 novices, quasi-experimental field study, within-subject design	Explicit situational information about a player’s action preference improved the chance for goalkeepers to choose the right corner.
	48	Nakamoto et al. (2022)	Baseball	Batting virtual baseballs in video-based situations	N = 13 experts, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Explicit estimations of ball speed were affected by the speed of the pitcher's movement, especially in conditions with high ball speed and thus less reliable ball flight information. In tendency, this effect was more pronounced for higher-skilled batters.
	49	Runswick et al. (2018)	Cricket	Predicting the ball’s location in occluded videos	N = 36 (18 experts, 18 novices), experimental lab study, between-subject design	Both pre-release/contextual information and post-release/kinematic information were considered for anticipation. While the importance of post-release/kinematic information increased over time, the importance of pre-release/contextual information decreased.
	50	Sinn et al. (2023)	Ball catching	Catching vertically dropped balls of different weights	N = 37 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Due to a relatively constant intermediate muscle activation for variable unknown ball weights, catching errors with the lightest ball were characterised by higher and with the heaviest ball by lower reflexive compensatory muscle activation.
	51	Stevenson et al. (2009)	Surfing simulation	Balancing on a board and steering a cursor as close as possible to a target	N = 10 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Subjects steered the movements slower and with less amplitude under increased feedback uncertainty conditions, implying that under greater uncertainty, the human control system integrates information over a longer period.
	52	Triolet et al. (2013)	Tennis	Initiating strokes in ATP tennis matches	N = 3000 strokes by N = 10 experts, explorative field study	Under unfavourable conditions, players initiated their movements earlier and with less response accuracy. When the movement was initiated later than 140 ms after ball contact, the movement almost always went in the right direction.
	53	Wang et al. (2019)	Soccer	Predicting the direction of penalties	N = 50 (25 experts, 25 novices), experimental lab study, between + within-subject design	Prior cues affected the response accuracy of experts and novices in congruent situations positively and in incongruent situations negatively.
	54	Whittier et al. (2022)	Step	Moving the centre of mass to a virtual target	N = 57 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	As incoming visual information became less reliable, more weight was given to previously learned body positions as prior knowledge. The position of the centre of mass was estimated consistent with Bayesian inference approaches.
	55	Yamamoto et al. (2019)	Tennis	Estimating the variance of one’s own serves	N = 31 (experts and novices), experimental lab study, between + within-subject design	A large isotropic bias was found regardless of experience level, so the estimated eccentricity was lower than observed. No effects of the intervention were revealed.
	56	Zago et al. (2004)	Ball punching	Punching real or virtual falling balls	N = 20 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	An integrated prior was found that gravity accelerates the falling ball, even when the virtual ball was not accelerated. This effect decreased with training.
Risk optimi-sation	57	Bertucco et al. (2020)	Snowboard	Balancing on a rocker board and controlling a virtual snowboard	N = 15 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	When the sensitivity of the rocker board was higher, participants chose a safer path by accepting smaller accelerations to reduce the risk of additional penalty points, meaning that participants considered different cost functions according to execution noise.
Redundancy exploitation	58	Bardy and Laurent (1998)	Gymnastics	Conducting somersaults	N = 5 (3 experts, 2 advanced), quasi-experimental field study, within-subject design	Without vision, experts showed a stable, gradually increasing variance of body orientation. Whilst under normal vision conditions, there was a variance increase in the first part of the somersault; experts showed a decrease in the second part, i.e. the crucial movement phase for approaching the floor.
	59	Betzler et al. (2014)	Golf	Conducting strokes at a target	N = 285 (all expertise levels), explorative field study, between + within-subject design	Expertise corresponded to a reduction of variance in several (e.g., club head speed, path angle) but not all variables.
	60	Bootsma and van Wieringen (1990)	Table tennis	Conducting forehand drives as fast and accurately as possible	N = 5 experts, explorative field study, within-subject design	The variance of the timing and direction of the initial movement of the bat was higher than for the moment of ball-bat contact.
	61	Burgess-Limerick et al. (1991)	Field hockey	Conducting hockey drives	N = 7 (4 experts, 3 novices), explorative field study, between-subject design	Novices showed less backswing variance than experts but more downswing variance.
	62	Davids et al. (1999)	Volleyball	Serving volleyballs as hard and accurately as possible	N = 6 experts, explorative field study, between-subject design	Experts stabilised the vertical position of the ball at the zenith and contact with the ball but allowed variability in the x-y plane, which they could compensate for.
	63	Dupuy et al. (2000)	Ball throwing	Throwing balls at a target on the floor	N = 8 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	The observed angle-speed combinations were close to the mechanical optimum to reduce variance in the throwing distance.
	64	Franks et al. (1985)	Hockey	Conducting hockey drives	N = 1 expert, explorative field study, within-subject design	High variance in the initiation of the stroke was found (i.e. preparation and backswing), but a consistent and accurate downswing.
	65	Hiley et al. (2013)	Gymnastics	Performing giant circles on the high bar	N = 4 (2 elites, 2 near elite athletes), explorative lab study, between + within-subject design	Elite athletes only showed less variance in the mechanically important aspects of the performed technique compared to near-elite athletes.
	66	Horan et al. (2011)	Golf	Conducting strokes at a target	N = 38 experts, explorative lab study, within-subject design	The variance of the club head and hand trajectory decreased from the top of the backswing to the ball contact.
	67	Iino et al. (2017)	Table tennis	Conducting strokes at a target as fast and accurately as possible	N = 17 (9 experts, 8 near experts), explorative lab study, between + within-subject design	The vertical racket face angle variance tended to decrease towards ball impact and increased immediately afterwards.
	68	Morrison et al. (2014)	Golf	Conducting strokes at a target	N = 4 experts, explorative lab study, within-subject design	The variance of the club head position trajectory increased from take-off to the top of the backswing and then decreased again until impact.
	69	Morrison et al. (2016)	Golf	Conducting strokes at a target	N = 22 (11 experts, 11 advanced players), explorative field study, between + within-subject design	The variance of the club head position decreased at impact, while the variance of its orientation was lower over the early downswing. The higher-skilled players showed less variance in the club head location than the advanced players.
	70	Nakano et al. (2020)	Basketball	Conducting free throws	N = 8 experts, explorative lab study, within-subject design	The players minimised the speed release to minimise the effect of release parameter errors rather than optimally handling parameter errors. This implies that they pursued a robust strategy according to release errors.
	71	Scholz et al. (2000)	Shooting	Shooting at a target after turns as fast and accurately as possible	N = 9 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	The arm configuration variables that do not change the orientation of the gun vector relative to the target did not affect performance and were less controlled than the arm configuration variables with an impact on the orientation of the gun.
	72	Scott et al. (1997)	Athletics	Conducting long jumps	N = 101 (71 elite athletes, 9 advanced athletes, 11 novices), explorative field study and reanalysis of data	Regardless of expertise level, long jumpers generally showed a high variance in the footsteps over the beginning and a low variance over the end of the run-up. The novices showed far more variance over the beginning but almost equal variance over the end.
	73	Sheppard and Li (2007)	Table tennis	Returning services as fast and accurately as possible	N = 24 (12 advanced players, 12 novices), explorative field study, between +within-subject design	In the approach to contact, batters reduced the variability of bat direction and orientation. However, this was not observed for the bat’s position, speed and acceleration. Advanced players tended to reduce the variability of the crucial variables when batting at higher speeds.
	74	Tucker et al. (2013)	Golf	Conducting strokes at a target	N = 16 experts, explorative lab study, within-subject design	The variance of the hand trajectory decreased from the top of the backswing to the ball contact. Movement variance was not related to ball speed variance.
	75	van Soest et al. (2010)	Table tennis	Smashing at a target with occluded vision	N = 7 experts, quasi-experimental field study, within-subject design	The variance of the timing and direction of the initial movement of the bat was higher than for the moment of ball-bat contact, both under normal and occluded vision, as well as in an additionally conducted simulation.
Impedance control	76	Blenkinsop et al. (2016)	Gymnastics	Performing handstands under different perturbation levels	N = 12 experts, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Performance under perturbation led to increased muscle stiffness and, ultimately, greater wrist joint torque.
	77	Reeves et al. (2013)	Stick balancing	Balancing a stick with an additional mass at its end	N = 9 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	When the task became more difficult (the mass was lower down) and the angular velocity of the stick increased, agonist and antagonist muscle activation increased, meaning that the increased joint stiffness allowed for control of the stick at a higher frequency.
	78	Reeves et al. (2016)	Stick balancing	Balancing a stick with an additional mass at its end	N = 9 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Participants' agonist and antagonist muscle activation increased when tasked to balance a stick with limited visual focus on the lower end of the stick. The increased joint stiffness resulted in better stick control at higher oscillation frequencies.
others	79	Bar-Eli et al. (2007)	Soccer	Saving penalties	N = 286 penalties from top leagues, explorative field study	Whilst the norm is to jump right or left, goalkeepers had the highest chance to save the penalty if they stayed in the goal’s centre.
	80	Goodman et al. (2009)	Rifle shooting	Shooting at a target	N = 28 (14 experts, 14 novices), explorative field study, between + within-subject design	In the final phase of shooting, the fluctuations in aiming remained at a constant level. Participants waited until the target was as close as possible to pull the trigger. This effect was found for experts as well as for novices.
	81	Mather (2008)	Tennis	Deciding ‘in’ or ‘out’ on tennis strokes under real game conditions	N = 1473 challenges by N = 246 professional athletes, explorative field study	94% of the challenges were within a zone of 100 mm next to the line, and line judges were slightly more accurate than players. A simple perceptual model with intrinsic positional uncertainty could well explain challenges.
	82	Mazyn et al. (2007)	Ball catching	Catching balls under visually occluded conditions	N = 20 novices, experimental lab study, within-subject design	Under occlusion conditions, movements were initiated later, and movement times were shorter than without occlusion. This effect increased after training.

Figure 2. Number of publications on mechanisms for handling uncertainty in sensorimotor control in sports as a function of year of publication.

Figure 3. Optimal feedback-control loops (Körding & Wolpert, 2006, p. 323; Todorov, 2004, p. 910; combined and modified by the authors) with indication of mechanisms (1)–(5) for handling uncertainty in sensorimotor control: (1) multisensory integration, (2) prior-knowledge integration,(3) risk optimisation, (4) redundancy exploitation, and (5) impedance control.

Table A1. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist.

SECTION	ITEM	PRISMA-ScR CHECKLIST ITEM	REPORTED ON PAGE #
TITLE
Title	1	Identify the report as a scoping review.	0
ABSTRACT
Structured summary	2	Provide a structured summary that includes (as applicable): background, objectives, eligibility criteria, sources of evidence, charting methods, results, and conclusions that relate to the review questions and objectives.	1
INTRODUCTION
Rationale	3	Describe the rationale for the review in the context of what is already known. Explain why the review questions/objectives lend themselves to a scoping review approach.	2–4
Objectives	4	Provide an explicit statement of the questions and objectives being addressed with reference to their key elements (e.g. population or participants, concepts, and context) or other relevant key elements used to conceptualize the review questions and/or objectives.	2–4
METHODS
Protocol and registration	5	Indicate whether a review protocol exists; state if and where it can be accessed (e.g. a Web address); and if available, provide registration information, including the registration number.	*
Eligibility criteria	6	Specify characteristics of the sources of evidence used as eligibility criteria (e.g. years considered, language, and publication status), and provide a rationale.	4–6
Information sources*	7	Describe all information sources in the search (e.g. databases with dates of coverage and contact with authors to identify additional sources), as well as the date the most recent search was executed.	5
Search	8	Present the full electronic search strategy for at least 1 database, including any limits used, such that it could be repeated.	Appendix B
Selection of sources of evidence†	9	State the process for selecting sources of evidence (i.e. screening and eligibility) included in the scoping review.	4–6**
Data charting process‡	10	Describe the methods of charting data from the included sources of evidence (e.g. calibrated forms or forms that have been tested by the team before their use, and whether data charting was done independently or in duplicate) and any processes for obtaining and confirming data from investigators.	4–6
Data items	11	List and define all variables for which data were sought and any assumptions and simplifications made.	4–5
Critical appraisal of individual sources of evidence§	12	If done, provide a rationale for conducting a critical appraisal of included sources of evidence; describe the methods used and how this information was used in any data synthesis (if appropriate).	***
Synthesis of results	13	Describe the methods of handling and summarizing the data that were charted.	****
RESULTS
Selection of sources of evidence	14	Give numbers of sources of evidence screened, assessed for eligibility, and included in the review, with reasons for exclusions at each stage, ideally using a flow diagram.	5–6
Characteristics of sources of evidence	15	For each source of evidence, present characteristics for which data were charted and provide the citations.	Table 1
Critical appraisal within sources of evidence	16	If done, present data on critical appraisal of included sources of evidence (see item 12).	***
Results of individual sources of evidence	17	For each included source of evidence, present the relevant data that were charted that relate to the review questions and objectives.	Table 1
Synthesis of results	18	Summarize and/or present the charting results as they relate to the review questions and objectives.	6–12
DISCUSSION
Summary of evidence	19	Summarize the main results (including an overview of concepts, themes, and types of evidence available), link to the review questions and objectives, and consider the relevance to key groups.	12–16
Limitations	20	Discuss the limitations of the scoping review process.	12–16
Conclusions	21	Provide a general interpretation of the results with respect to the review questions and objectives, as well as potential implications and/or next steps.	12–16
FUNDING
Funding	22	Describe sources of funding for the included sources of evidence, as well as sources of funding for the scoping review. Describe the role of the funders of the scoping review.-

Table C1. Identification of the studies.

	Author(s)	cited in	found by
1	(Abernethy et al., 2001)	3,14,18,28,32,36,40,42,41,43,45,53,54,57,75,78,71,72	initial search
2	(Ankarali et al., 2014)		initial search
3	(Arthur & Harris, 2021)	30	initial search
4	(Bar-Eli et al., 2007)	71	reference list
5	(Bardy & Laurent, 1998)	16,35,64	initial search
6	(Berg & Hughes, 2017)	7	initial search
7	(Berg & Hughes, 2020)		initial search
8	(Bertucco et al., 2020)		additional
9	(Betzler et al., 2014)	52	reference list
10	(Blenkinsop et al., 2016)		initial search
11	(Bootsma & van Wieringen, 1990)	5,12,15,35,51,52,53,63,68,77	initial search
12	(Burgess-Limerick et al., 1991)		initial search
13	(Cañal-Bruland et al., 2018)	25,65,72	reference list
14	(Crognier & Féry, 2005)	40,41,43,49,53,54,57,75	reference list
15	(Davids et al., 1999)		initial search
16	(Dupuy et al., 2000)	56	reference list
17	(Eckerle et al., 2012)	7,69	initial search
18	(Farrow & Reid, 2012)	21,24,28,29,32,36,40,41,43,44,45,49,53,54,61,63,78,	initial search
19	(Franks et al., 1985)	5,11,12,15	initial search
20	(Goodman et al., 2009)		initial search
21	(Gray & Cañal-Bruland, 2018)	3,25,26,27,29,30,32,36,53,78	initial search
22	(Gray, 2002)	23,36,41,44,45,53,54,75	reference list
23	(Gray, 2009)	21,25,26,27,38	reference list
24	(Gredin et al., 2018)	2,11,12,13,16,21,22,29,34	initial search
25	(Gredin et al., 2019)	26,27,44	reference list
26	(Gredin, Bishop, et al., 2020a)		additional
27	(Gredin, Broadbent, et al., 2020c)	26	initial search
28	(Güldenpenning et al., 2018)	29,36	reference list
29	(Güldenpenning et al., 2023)		reference list
30	(Harris, Arthur, Vine, et al., 2022b)		reference list
31	(Heinen et al., 2014)	38	reference list
32	(Helm et al., 2020)	26,29,36,43,44,53	initial search
33	(Hiley et al., 2013)		initial search
34	(Horan et al., 2011)	51,52,76	initial search
35	(Iino et al., 2017)		initial search
36	(Jackson et al., 2020)	29,44	reference list
37	(Kennel et al., 2015)		additional
38	(Krabben et al., 2018)		initial search
39	(Leukel et al., 2012)		initial search
40	(Loffing & Hagemann, 2014)	24,28,32,41,42,43,44,45,53,54,63,78	reference list
41	(Loffing et al., 2015)	24,27,28,29,32,36,42,43,44,53,54,63,78,	initial search
42	(Loffing et al., 2016)	32,54,60,78	initial search
43	(Magnaguagno & Hossner, 2020)	44	reference list
44	(Magnaguagno et al., 2022)		initial search
45	(Mann et al., 2014)	21,24,27,28,29,32,36,41,43,44,49,53	initial search
46	(Mather, 2008)		additional
47	(Mazyn et al., 2007)		initial search
48	(McIntyre et al., 2001)	81	reference list
49	(Milazzo et al., 2016)	29,36,54,60	reference list
50	(Misirlisoy & Haggard, 2014)	41	reference list
51	(Morrison et al., 2014)	52	reference list
52	(Morrison et al., 2016)	35	reference list
53	(Murphy et al., 2016)	24,25,36,43,44,54,63,72,78	reference list
54	(Murphy et al., 2018)	43,44,78,60	reference list
53	(Nakamoto et al., 2022)		reference list
56	(Nakano et al., 2020)		initial search
57	(Navia et al., 2013)	24,25,27,29,32,36,41,43,44,45,49,53,54,78	reference list
58	(O'Brien et al., 2020)		initial search
59	(O'Brien et al., 2021)		initial search
60	(Petri et al., 2020)		initial search
61	(Reeves et al., 2013)	62	reference list
62	(Reeves et al., 2016)		initial search
63	(Runswick et al., 2018)	25,26,27,29,64,78	reference list
64	(Santello et al., 2001)	6	reference list
65	(Schaffert et al., 2020)		additional
66	(Scholz et al., 2000)	52	reference list
67	(Scott et al., 1997)	35,51,52,68	reference list
68	(Sheppard & Li, 2007)	35	reference list
69	(Sinn et al., 2023)		reference list
70	(Sinnett & Kingstone, 2010)	13,82	reference list
71	(Sors et al., 2017)	13,60,65,72	initial search
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74	(Takeuchi, 1993)	13,38,65,71,72	reference list
75	(Triolet et al., 2013)	24,26,53,54,63	initial search
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78	(Wang et al., 2019)	60	reference list
79	(Whittier et al., 2022)		reference list
80	(Yamamoto et al., 2019)		initial search
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Data availability statement

Data available within the article or its supplementary materials.