The current trends in the green syntheses of titanium oxide nanoparticles and their applications

Figures & data

Figure 1. Reduction mechanism of TiO₂ NPs.

Table 1. TiO₂ nanoparticles synthesized from different plants species.

S.no	Plant taxa	Part used	Shape	Size (nm)	Characterization	Ref
1	Acanthophyllum laxiusculum Schiman-Czeika	Roots	Spherical	20–25	XRD, FTIR, EDAX and TEM	Madadi and Lotfabad ( 25)
2	Ageratina altissima (L.) R.M. King and H. Rob.	Leaves	Spherical	60–100	XRD, FTIR, and FSEM	Ganesan et al. ( 26)
3	Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.	Leaves	Irregular	60	TEM,XRD,UV, TGA and PSA	Rao and colleagues ( 27)
		WP	Irregular	60–80	XRD, PSA, SEM and FTIR	Khadar et al. ( 28)
4	Annona squamosa L.	Peel	Polydisperse	23	XRD, SEM, TEM and EDS	Roopan and colleagues ( 29)
5	Anisomeles malabarica (L.) R.Br. ex Sims	Leaves	–	18	XRD	Saravanan et al. ( 30)
6	Azadirachta indica A.Juss.	-	Spherical	124	UV and FTIR	Sankar et al. ( 31)
7	Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand.	Flower	Spherical	10	SEM, EDX and XRD	Marimuthu and colleagues ( 18)
8	Catharanthus	Leaves	Cluster	25	XRD, FTIR and SEM	Velayutham and colleagues ( 32)
9	Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb.	Leaves	Spherical	38	UV, FTIR, FSEM and XRD	Valli and Geetha ( 33)
10	Cicer arietinum L.	Seeds	Spherical	14	TEM,XRD,UV and TGA	Kashale and colleagues ( 34)
11	Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees and Eberm.	Leaves	–	8–20	FESEM,TEM and FTIR	Naik et al. ( 35)
12	Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck	Peel	Tetragonal	19	TEM, XRD, TGA and PSA	Rao et al. ( 36)
13	Curcuma longa L.	WP	–	50	AFM, SEM, XRD and UV	Jalill and colleagues ( 19)
14	Cynodon Dactylon (L.) Pers.	Leaves	Hexagonal	13–34	XRD, FTIR and SEM	Sahu et al. ( 37)
15	Dandelion	Pollen	Rod	–	XRD, FSEM and TEM	Bao and colleagues ( 21)
16	Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench	WP	Polydisperse	120	TXRF, SEM and XRD	Dobrucka ( 13)
17	Eclipta prostrate (L.) L.	Leaves	Spherical	36–68	FTIR, XRD, AFM and FESEM	Rajakumar and colleagues ( 23)
18	Euphorbia prostrate Aiton	Leaves	Poly disperse	83.22	SAED, TEM and AFM	Zahir et al. ( 38)
19	Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.	Flower	Spherical	–	FTIR, SEM and XRD	Kumar and colleagues ( 39)
20	Jatropha curcas L.	Latex	Spherical	25–100	SAED, EDAX, XRD and FTIR	Hudlikar and colleagues ( 40)
21	Morinda citrifolia L.	Leaves	Spherical	15–19	EDAX, FTIR, SEM and XRD	Sundrarajan and colleagues ( 41)
22	Moringa oleifera Lam.	Leaves	Spherical	100	UV and SEM	Sivaranjani and Philominathan ( 42)
23	Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.	Leaves	Spherical	100	SEM and PSA	Sundrarajan and Gowri ( 43)
24	Ocimum basilicum L.	Leaves	Hexagonal	50	XRD, FTIR, SEM, TEM and EDAX	Jayasinghe et al. ( 44)
25	Piper betle L.	Leaves	Spherical	7	FTIR, UV, XRD, and SEM	Hunagund et al. ( 45)
26	Psidium guajava L.	Leaves	Spherical	32.58	FESEM, XRD and SEM	Santhoshkumar and colleagues ( 46)
27	Solanum trilobatum L.	-	Spherical	70	FTIR, XRD, AFM and FESEM	Rajakumar and colleagues ( 24)
28	Vigna radiate (L.) R. Wilczek	Legume	Oval	–	SEM and FTIR	Chatterjee et al. ( 47)
29	Trigonella foenum-graecum L.	Leaves	Spherical	20–90	FTIR, UV, XRD, HR-TEM and HR-SEM	Subhapriya and Gomathipriya ( 48)

WP: Whole plant.

Table 2. TiO₂ nanoparticles synthesized from different microbial species.

S.no	Bacterial species	Part used	Shape	Size (nm)	Characterization
1.	Aeromonas hydrophila	Spherical	40.50	FTIR, XRD, FESEM and AFM	Jayaseelan and colleagues ( 8)
2.	Bacillus amyloliquefaciens	Spherical	22.1–97.2	FTIR, XRD, SEM and EDAX	Khan and Fulekar ( 50)
3.	Bacillus mycoides	Polydisperse	40–60	UV, TEM, DLS and FTIR	Órdenes-Aenishanslins and colleagues ( 14)
4.	Bacillus subtilis	Spherical	30–40	UV and TEM	Singh ( 20)
5.	Bacillus subtilis	Spherical	66–77	UV, XRD, FTIR, AFM and SEM	Kirthi et al. ( 51)
6.	Bacillus subtilis	Spherical	10–30	FTIR, UV, XRD and TEM.	Dhandapani et al. ( 52)
7.	Lactobacillus	Spherical	24.63	XRD and TEM	Jha and colleagues ( 49)
8.	Lactobacillus	Spherical	40–60	TEM and XRD	Prasad et al. ( 53)
9.	Planomicrobium sp.	Spherical	100	XRD, FTIR and SEM	Malarkodi et al. ( 54)
10.	Aspergillus niger	Spherical	73.58	XRD, SEM and UV	Durairaj et al. ( 55)
11.	Aspergillus tubingensis	–	<100	AFM, EDS, SEM and TEM	Babitha and Korrapati ( 56)
12.	Aspergillus flavus	Spherical,	62–74	FTIR, XRD, AFM, SEM and TEM	Rajakumar and colleagues ( 57)
13.	Fusarium oxysporum	Quasi-spherical	9.8	FTIR, TEM, XRD and XPS	Bansal et al. ( 58)
14.	Fusarium oxysporum	Spherical	10	SAED, TEM, XRD and XPS	Bansal et al. ( 59)
15.	Aspergillus niger, Rhizoctonia bataticola, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Aspergillus oryzae.			DLS, TEM, AFM	Raliya and Tarafdar ( 60)

Figure 2. Fungus mediated biosynthesis of TiO₂ nanoparticles.

Table 3. TiO₂ nanoparticles synthesized from biological derivatives.

S.no	Bio-products	Shape	Size (nm)	Characterization	Ref
1.	Albumin	Spherical	50	XRD, FSEM and TEM	Bao and colleagues ( 21)
2.	Egg shell	Rod	10	TGA UV,FTIR, XRD and HRTEM	Yang et al. ( 69)
3.	Gelatin	Spherical	15	TEM, FTIR, XRD and EDAX	Bagheri et al. ( 70)
4.	Lignin cellulose	–	13	TGA,UV,FTIR, XRD and TEM	Ramimoghadam and colleagues ( 66)
5.	Starch	Irregular	64–80	XRD, UV, HRTEM and FESEM	Muniandy et al. ( 71)
6.	Arginine	Spherical		SEM TEM EDX FTIR XRD XPS	Shi et al. ( 72)
7.	Peptides	Spherical	30–70	SEM DLS EDX, XRD	Cole et al. ( 73)
8.	Polyamine	Hollow spheres	3–4	TEM XRD XPS	Yan et al. ( 74)
9.	Lysozyme		50	UV, XRD HR-TEM	KyuáKim and HyeokáPark ( 75)
10.	Pomelo Peel		90	UV-DRS, XRD, FTIR, SEM,	Zhang et al. ( 76)
11.	Protamine	Spherical	50	SEM TEM FTIR XPS	Jiang et al. ( 77)

Figure 3. Mechanistic representation of TiO₂ nanoparticles effect on bacterial cell.

Table 4. TiO₂ nanoparticles synthesized from different microbial species.

S.No	Source of synthesis	Microbes tested	Method used	Ref
1.	Aspergillus flavus	Shigella dysenteriae type I, Staphylococcus aureus, Citrobacter sp., Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans and F. oxysporum	Agar diffusion	Rajakumar and colleagues ( 57)
2.	Planomicrobium sp.	Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella planticola	Agar plate	Malarkodi and colleagues ( 54)
3.	Bacillus subtilis	E. coli	Luria broth agar	Singh ( 20)
4.	Aeromonas hydrophila	A. hydrophila, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes and Enterococcus faecalis	Disk diffusion	Jayaseelan and colleagues ( 8)
5.	Euphorbia prostrata	Leishmania donovani	RPMI 1640 medium	Zahir and colleagues ( 38)
6.	Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L	Vibrio cholerae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus	Mueller Hinton agar	Kumar and colleagues ( 39)
7.	M. citrifolia	Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger	Agar diffusion	Sundrarajan and colleagues ( 41)
8.	Curcuma longa	F. graminearum	PDA medium	Jalill and colleagues ( 19)
9.	Psidium guajava	Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli	Disk diffusion	Santhoshkumar and colleagues ( 46)
10.	Vigna radiate	E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Serratia marcescens, Salmonella ., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter., Proteus mirabilis, and Shigella	Well-diffusion	Chatterjee and colleagues ( 47)
11.	Cynodon Dactylon	E. coli	Disk diffusion	Sahu and colleagues ( 37)
12.	Trigonella foenum-graecum	Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Bacillus subtilis, Yersinia enterocolitica and Candida albicans	Disk diffusion	Subhapriya and Gomathipriya ( 48)

Figure 4. Effect of biogenic TiO₂ NPs on larva’s biochemical factors.

Table 5. List of larva species tested against TiO₂ NPs.

S.no	Organism used	Parasites tested	Results	Ref
1.	Catharanthus	H. maculate and B. ovis	LD50 = 7.09 and 6.56 mg/L	Velayutham and colleagues ( 32)
2.	Calotropis gigantea (L.)	Rhipicephalus microplus and Haemaphysalis bispinosa	LC50 = 24.63 and 5.43 mg/L	Marimuthu and colleagues ( 18)
3.	Solanum trilobatum L.	Diculus humanus capitis, Hyalomma anatolicum and Anopheles subpictus	LC50 = 28.80,24.01, and 1.94 mg/L	Rajakumar and colleagues ( 24)
4.	Aspergillus niger	Aedes aegypti	LC50.90 8.4 and 14.9 mg/L	Durairaj and colleagues ( 55)

Figure 5. Photocatalytic mechanism of biogenic TiO₂ NPs under light source.

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