Immigrants and indigenes: the Lost Counties Dispute and the evolution of ethnic identity in colonial Buganda

Abstract

This is a study of ethnic politics in colonial Buganda, one of East Africa's largest and oldest kingdoms. It compares two strategies of ethnic integration: one designed to discipline the enormous, disparate body of economic migrants who sought to share in Buganda's cash-cropping wealth; the other aimed at undermining the irredentism of the Nyoro population of the “Lost Counties”, territory that had been conquered by the British and transferred to their Ganda allies during the 1890s conquest of Bunyoro. Some mechanisms – the requirement to acknowledge the authority of Buganda's king, the universal insistence on Luganda as the language of public life, and the use of the court system as a means of coercion and education – were employed in both contexts. But in Buganda's heartland, most Ganda wanted immigrants primarily for their labour, and viewed the prospect of their integration as landholders, in-laws and chiefs with some alarm. By contrast, in the Lost Counties, the need to assimilate the local Nyoro majority was almost universally accepted by Ganda. Here, customary law was used to suppress Nyoro culture, Ganda names and clans were imposed on Nyoro subjects, and Nyoro were counted as Ganda in censuses. As the colonial period wore on the greater power of the Ganda state was employed in increasingly complex ways to secure the loyalty of the amenable Nyoro elite, and repress the dissident minority. A number of factors explain this divergence. The structure of colonial politics focused Ganda ethnic identity more on territoriality than had previously been the case; Buganda's historic rivalry with Bunyoro encouraged this relatively extreme policy of absorption; the loss of the Lost Counties would weaken Buganda's physical and demographic pre-eminence within Uganda; and Nyoro irredentism, by securing the support of political elites across Uganda, heightened Ganda fears of encirclement by hostile nationalist forces.

Keywords:

• Uganda
• Buganda
• Bunyoro
• ethnicity
• migration
• colonialism

Acknowledgements

The research on which this paper is based has been funded by the AHRC, British Academy and ESRC. Thanks are due to Vincent Hiribarren,Will Jackson, John Iliffe, Sir Eli Lauterpacht QC, John Lonsdale, Lubega Gerald, Henri Me′dard, Musinguzi Mark, Edward Nugee QC, Charles Otim, Jerry Pearlman, Cecilia Pennacini and Aidan Stonehouse.

Notes

1. E.g. Mamdani, Victims; Lonsdale, “Conquest,” 758; Ranger, “Missionaries”; Iliffe, Tanganyika , 318–41; Willis, Mombasa; Greene, Gender; Villalon, Senegal, 44–52.

2. Though see Rathbone, “Akyemfo.”

3. Cf. Richards, Economic Development; Richards, Changing Structure.

4. Roberts, “Lost Counties”; Beattie, Nyoro State; Burke, Local Government; Doyle, “Lost Counties.” See also Green, ‘‘Understanding the limits to ethnic change.’’

5. Kaggwa, Kings; Miti, “History.”

6. Reid, Political Power, 82; Médard, “Introduction,” 28–31; Twaddle, Kakungulu, 51; Roscoe, Baganda, 255; Hanson, Landed Obligation, 69.

7. Médard, “Introduction,” 18.

8. Hanson, Landed Obligation, 82–9.

9. Médard, Le royaume, 153–220; Hanson, Landed Obligation, 151.

10. Low and Pratt, British Overrule; Roberts, “Sub-imperialism”; Twaddle, Kakungulu; Pirouet, Black Evangelists.

11. Hanson, Landed Obligation, 176, 194.

12. Musisi, “Morality,” 51–2; Iliffe, Honour, 211; Waliggo, “Buddu Province,” ch. 3.

13. Summers, “Young Buganda”; A. Richards papers, London School of Economics archive (ARLSREA), Correspondence files, A. Richards to A. Cohen, Dec. 12, 1956. Richards quoted one Ganda politician's reaction to British policy: “You British put us to rule over Uganda. Now you have changed your mind and say you believe in democracy! We have not changed our minds” (E. Mulira, 1952).

14. Low, Political Parties.

15. Uganda Protectorate, 1959 Census; Southwold, “Baganda,” Vol. III, 166–7; Southwold, “Baganda,” Vol. II, 171–3.

16. “Mulago,” 118, 41, 64.

17. ARLSREA, 7/18, Mutuba II, Busiro, 26 Jan. 1951; 7/19, Bulamesi, June 15, 1951; 7/16, Sabagabo of Busiro, Nov. 17, 1950; 7/18, Busiro, Musisi (Musigiri Semeoni Kayanda), Nov. 17, 1950; Gutkind, “Mulago,” 63.

18. Hanson, Landed Obligation, 176, 194; ARLSREA, 7/19, G. Mut. 7, Kyagwe, M. Musaale, 1951; 7/19, Bulamesi, June 15, 1951; 7/18, Notes on meeting at Sabawali's private home and Sabadu's Lukiko, Mumyuka's gombolola, Busiro saza, Jan. 20, 1951; 7/16, Banyaruanda, Nov. 14, 1950; 7/19, Mutuba VIII, Mulyanti.

19. ARLSREA, 7/19, Bulamesi, June 15, 1951.

20. ARLSREA,7/16, Banyaruanda, Nov. 14, 1950; Richards, Economic Development, 179.

21. ARLSREA,7/18, Busiro, Musisi (Musigiri Semeoni Kayanda), Nov. 17, 1950.

22. ARLSREA,7/19, Tea estate, Nov. 2, 1950 Richards, Economic Development, 164–5.

23. H. Colvile, Uganda Diary, Apr. 9–11, 1894, Derbyshire District Record Office, Matlock.

24. H. Médard (pers. comm.). Ganda alliances with those few Nyoro chiefs who accepted the new dispensation tended not to be very enduring.

25. E.g. Buganda Annual Report 1910–11, Entebbe Secretariat Archives, A46/420.

26. Evidence Given Before the Commission of Privy Councillors (ECPC), Proof of evidence taken by E. Nugee, Barrister at Law, Constantin Kawesa, Kakumiro, Bugangazzi, n/d [1962].

27. E.g. ECPC, Jan. 10, 1962, 2pm, p. 12, Foster, referring to Musale, Buyaga birth register, 1956–57; Jan. 18, 1962, Band 1, pp. 11–12, Rwamanika; ECPC, Jan. 17, 1962, Band 4, p.14, Kisurali; Proof of evidence taken by G. Coles, Barrister at Law, n/d, P. Kamara and K. Muruli.

28. E.g. ECPC, Jan. 10, 1962, 2pm, p. 12, Foster, referring to Musale, Buyaga birth register, 1956–57; Jan. 18, 1962, Band 1, pp. 11–12, Rwamanika; ECPC, Jan. 17, 1962, Band 4, p.14, Kisurali; Proof of evidence taken by G. Coles, Barrister at Law, n/d, P. Kamara and K. Muruli.; ECPC, Proof of evidence taken by J. Pearlman, Solicitor, n/d, Matiya Sembatya; Proof of evidence taken by G. Coles, Barrister at Law, n/d, Yoanna Gafabusa..

29. ECPC, Jan. 24, 1962, Band 1, p. 1.

30. ECPC, Proof of evidence taken by G. Coles, Barrister at Law, n/d, Isaka Irumba; Proof of evidence, Bugangazzi 4, Eriya Botha; Proof of evidence taken by G. Coles, Barrister at Law, n/d, Igenatio Kaijakwamya Sserunkuuma.

31. ECPC, Jan. 11, 1962, 930am, Foster, p.14; Jan. 24, 1962, Band 1, p.15, Erasto Kamara.

32. ECPC, Jan. 12, 1962, 9am, p. 5, Gratiaen; Jan. 11, 1962, 2pm, p. 18; Foster, quoting letter from Katikiro and PC to Buganda schools, Aug. 1933; Jan. 11, 1962, 930am, p.8 Foster, quoting letter from I. Ndawula, Kyambalango to gombolola chiefs of Buyaga, Aug. 28, 1956; Statement of the Chief Judge, Buganda Kabaka's Courts, Jan. 10, 1962; Proof of evidence taken by G. Coles, Barrister at Law, n/d, Yuzufu Kyamanyire; Jan. 17, 1962, Band 3, Sefuroza Kiiza.

33. Médard, Le Royaume, 59–61.

34. Uganda Protectorate, 1921 Census; Uganda Protectorate, 1931 Census.

35. Uganda Protectorate, 1921 Census; Uganda Protectorate, 1931 Census.

36. Uganda Protectorate, 1948 Census.

37. ECPC, Jan. 12, 1962, Band 2, pp. 2–7, Evidence of Dennis Lury, government statistician.

38. ECPC, EX32 Kakumiro interviews, Bugangaizi, Jan. 13, 1962; Proof of evidence, Bugangazzi 6, Karoli Kasaija, n/d [1962]; Proof of evidence, Bugangazzi 7, Constantine Kawesa, n/d [1962]; Proof of evidence taken by E. Nugee, Barrister at Law, Constantin Kawesa, Kakumiro, Bugangazzi, n/d [1962]; Proof of evidence taken by J. Pearlman, Solicitor, Maurice Ssemabenla, Buwekula, n/d [1962].

39. Uganda Protectorate, 1948 Census; Uganda Protectorate, 1959 Census.

40. E.g. ECPC, Jan. 18, 1962, Band 5, p. 19; Jan. 16, 1961, Band 6, pp. 24–6, A. Dunbar; Jan. 22, 1962, Band 1, pp. 20–33.

41. E.g. ECPC, Note of evidence given before the commission in Bugerere, Buruli and Bulemezi sazas, n/d [1962]; Jan. 16, 1962, Band 1, Y. Nyakatura

42. ECPC, Jan. 23, 1962, Kakumiro, Band 1, p. 9, Rugemwa.

43. Uganda Protectorate, 1921 Census; Uganda Protectorate, 1931 Census.

44. ECPC, Jan. 25, 1962, p. 5, S. Kulubya; Jan. 17, 1962, Band 4, Kisurali, pp. 12 –15; Jan. 15, 1962, Band 5, Muwanga; Jan. 23, 1962, Kakumiro, Band 1, p. 9, Rugemwa; Jan. 12, 1962, 9am, p. 2, Gratiaen; A. Stuart, for Resident of Buganda, to the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Local Government, Mar. 19, 1959. It is interesting that the Nyala sub-ethnic group were not regarded with such suspicion as Nyoro, with several Nyala attaining very high office in the Ganda state by the middle of the colonial period. ECPC, Evidence in Bugerere, Baale.

45. ECPC, Jan. 11, 1962, 930am, Foster, pp. 9–10; Jan. 25, 1962, S. Kulubya; Jan. 17, 1962, Band 4, Kisurali, p. 17; Y. Kaheru, on behalf of teachers in the Lost Counties, to the Privy Councillors, Jan. 9, 1962; Jan. 22, 1962, Band 4, p. 10, Ndakura. See also Green, ‘‘Understanding the limits to ethnic change’’, 477.

46. ECPC, Simon Kiruluta, Saza chief Kiyimba of Bugangadzi, statement, n/d (1962).

47. ECPC, Jan. 17, 1962, Band 4, pp. 15–16, Kisurali.

48. ECPC, Jan. 17, 1962, Band 2, Kiiza, pp. 5–11; Jan. 18, 1962, Band 5, p. 14; Jan. 22, 1962, Mubende, Band 1, 9am, p. 1.

49. ECPC, Simon Kiruluta, Saza chief Kiyimba of Bugangadzi, statement, n/d (1962).

50. ECPC, Jan. 13, 1962, Evidence of Andrew Stuart, Judicial Adviser, p. 6; Proof of evidence taken by G. Coles, Barrister at Law, n/d, Petro Tibamwenda, Busaana, Buyaga; Judgement, Lukiiko vs Kosea Rwebembera, Criminal Case No. 82/61, Gombolola Sabagabo, Bugangazzi; Jan. 12, 1962, 11am, Gratiaen, pp. 2–3, 7; Jan. 11, 1962, 930am, Foster, pp. 11–14; Lukiiko Resolution No. 58 of 1956; A. Mayanja, Minister of Education, Buganda, to all teachers, Aug. 3, 1961; Proof of evidence taken by G. Coles, Barrister at Law, n/d, Leo Mugenyi Balaba; Proof of evidence taken by J. Pearlman, Solicitor, n/d, Timuteo Kasambura.

51. ECPC, Statements collected in 1961 by Commission of Enquiry into the Lost Counties, Alex M. Kalungi, Dec. 27, 1961.

52. ECPC, Jan. 8, 1962, p.2/22, Gratiaen; Jan. 9, 1962, p.2/8, Foot; Foster, “Bunyoro: Rough notes for final speech,” n/d, c. Jan. 1962; Foster, Jan. 8, 1962, p.1/1; Lauterpacht, Jan. 11, 1962, p. 1; Uganda Eyogera, Jan. 19, 1962, 1, “Buganda Ready to Fight for the Lost Counties: Bunyoro Cannot Match the Might of Buganda!”

53. The Monitor: “Iguru Denies Split with King Mutebi,” Aug. 20, 2007; Feb. 3, 2008, “Little Men: What Causes Dwarfism?”; July 5, “150 Bakiga Sue Government for Kibaale Clashes”; The Monitor, Mar. 15, 2005, “The Bakiga–Banyoro Blood Feud: Will They Ever Co-exist?”