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Abstract
This article analyses the biodiversity conservation/ecotourism nexus as an uncontested device produced through Western conceptualisations of nature and conservation, and designed to pursue the social and economic development of communities in Africa. The aim of the article is twofold: first to position biodiversity conservation and ecotourism within broader approaches to development; and second to achieve a critical understanding of the processes and practices that seek to produce eco-friendly subjectivities and ecotourism entrepreneurs. The article focuses on a biodiversity conservation and development project in south-western Uganda: the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP), which is home to almost half the world population of the endangered mountain gorilla. This article outlines the social, cultural and economic gains and losses in BINP, employing discourse analysis to map out narratives through which biodiversity conservation and ecotourism have been mainstreamed into international sustainable development. The case study illustrates how these discourses of biodiversity conservation, ecotourism and sustainable development are being transformed and negotiated in practice with development agencies, such as the World Bank, USAID and CARE, and local residents.
Notes
1. Adams, Against Extinction.
2. Adams, Against Extinction, 41.
3. Ibid; Knight, Natural Enemies.
4. Adams, Against Extinction, 117.
5. Hulme and Murphree, “Introduction,” 4.
6. Adams, Against Extinction, 4.
7. Adams and Hulme, “Changing Narratives,” 13.
8. Adams and Hulme, “Changing Narratives,”, 17.
9. Adams and Hulme, “Changing Narratives,”; Li, The Will to Improve.
10. Adams and Hulme, “Changing Narratives.”
11. Agrawal, Environmentality; Li, The Will to Improve.
12. The expression is used in Adams and Infield, “Who is on the Gorilla's Payroll?”
13. Brockington, Duffy and Igoe, Nature Unbound; Honey, Ecotourism.
14. Mowforth and Munt, Tourism and Sustainability; Brockington, Duffy and Igoe, Nature Unbound.
15. West and Carrier, “Ecotourism and Authenticity,” 484.
16. Stronza, “Anthropology of Tourism,” 262.
17. Stronza, “Anthropology of Tourism,”, 269; Brockington, Duffy and Igoe, Nature Unbound, 138–9.
18. Stronza, “Anthropology of Tourism”; West and Carrier, “Ecotourism and Authencity.”
19. McNeilage and Robbins, “Bwindi-Impenetrable”; Sandbrook, “Putting Leakage in its Place.”
20. Mowforth and Munt, Tourism and Sustainability; Adams and Infield, “Who is on the Gorilla's Payroll?”
21. Hamilton et al., “Conservation in a Region of Political Instability,” 1723.
22. IUCN, “Red List of Threatened Species.”
23. Namara, “From Paternalism,” 43.
24. Namara, Gray, and McNeilage, “People and Bwindi Forest.”
25. Butynski and Kalina, “Gorilla Tourism” ; Hamilton et al., “Conservation in a Region of Political Instability”; McNeilage and Robbins, “Bwindi-Impenetrable.”
26. Hamilton et al., “Conservation in a Region of Political Instability”; Blomley, “Natural Resource Conflict Management.”
27. Namara, “From Paternalism”; Hulme and Infield, “Community Conservation.”
28. Hulme and Infield, “Community Conservation,” 107.
29. Hulme and Infield, “Community Conservation,”, 107–8.
30. Namara, “From Paternalism.”
31. Namara, “From Paternalism.”; Blomley, Franks and Kabugenda, “Towards ‘Institutional Landscapes’.”
32. Namara, “From Paternalism,” 49–50.
33. Butynski and Kalina, “Gorilla Tourism.”
34. McNeilage and Robbins, “Bwindi-Impenetrable”; Adams and Infield, “Who is on the Gorilla's Payroll?”
35. McNeilage and Robbins, “Bwindi-Impenetrable.”
36. UWA website, http://www.uwa.or.ug/
37. Adams and Infield, “Who is on the Gorilla's Payroll?”
38. Tariffs retrieved from http://www.uwa.or.ug/tariffs.htm (accessed August 18, 2009)
39. Namara, “From Paternalism,” 52.
40. Mowforth and Munt, Tourism and Sustainability, 57.
41. Sandbrook, “Putting Leakage in its Place,” 10.
42. Sandbrook, “Putting Leakage in its Place,”, 11.
43. Walpole and Goodwin, “Local Economic Impacts.”
44. The documents available are by no means extensive, and thus constrain to a certain extent the account this article provides of the projects undertaken by these development actors; nevertheless they serve to construct an overall image of how the conservation–ecotourism nexus has been negotiated and transformed in practice.
45. Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Bwindi Impenetrable Park and Echuya Central Forest Reserve.
46. Forest Peoples Programme, Alternative Report to the Second Periodic Report.
47. Recommendations put forward in the report by Jason Hoke, Assessment of Nature-Based Community Development (USAID, 2000) hold that this is essential.
48. Adams and Infield, “Who is on the Gorilla's Payroll?”; Namara, “From Paternalism”; Hamilton et al, “Conservation in a Region of Political Instability.”
49. Metcalfe, Final Evaluation: CARE.
50. Metcalfe, Final Evaluation: CARE.
51. Namara, “From Paternalism.”
52. Barrow and Murphree, “Community Conservation.”
53. Namara, “From Paternalism,” 54.
54. Metcalfe, Final Evaluation: CARE, 25.
55. Metcalfe, Final Evaluation: CARE, 23.
56. Blomley, “Natural Resource Conflict Management,” 240.
57. Blomley, “Natural Resource Conflict Management,”, 241.
58. Blomley, “Natural Resource Conflict Management,”, 248.
59. Metcalfe, Final Evaluation: CARE, 24.
60. World Bank, Project Performance Assessment Report, ix.
61. World Bank, Project Performance Assessment Report, 4.
62. World Bank, Project Performance Assessment Report, 8.
63. World Bank, Project Performance Assessment Report
64. World Bank, Project Performance Assessment Report
65. World Bank, Project Performance Assessment Report, 15.
66. World Bank, Project Performance Assessment Report
67. Zannika, Impact of (Forest) Nature Conservation on Indigenous Peoples.
68. Hoke, Assessment of Nature-Based Community Development.
69. Hoke, Assessment of Nature-Based Community Development
70. Hoke, Assessment of Nature-Based Community Development