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ABSTRACT
Drainage systems are important facilities for the maintenance of a city’s normal operation. Whilst they directly affect the internal urban environment, they are also a key link between a city and the world outside. The traditional drainage mode of Chinese cities was challenged by modern technologies that changed the relationship between cities and nature. Tianjin had developed rapidly into an important port in northern China, from a basis constructed during its days as a treaty port. The old drainage system changed significantly due to urban expansion and the appearance of modern health facilities such as sewer pipes. This reduced the commercial flow of sewage and ditch mud as rural fertilizers, gradually weakening the connection between the city and the surrounding environment. However, although the creation of a modern drainage system improved the urban landscape and people’s living conditions, it also affected the traditional urban wastewater disposal and sewage recycling. The resulting reduction in material exchange with the countryside caused metabolism rift, as discussed by Karl Marx. The ecological consequences and lasting influence of this change are worth our attention.
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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Glossary
Balitai 八里台
Chilong 赤龙
Dutong yamen 都统衙门
Erlitou 二里头
Haiguang 海光
Haihe 海河
He Fenglai 何凤来
Huluguan 葫芦罐
Jinzhong 金钟
Li Zhiqing 李芝青
Meng Qingchen 孟庆臣
Qiangzi 墙子
Sanchakou 三岔口
Sengge Rinchen 僧格林沁
Sifangkeng 四方坑
Taihang 太行
Weijin 卫津
Wu Xueshi 吴学诗
Xie Xihong 谢西鸿
Yanshan 燕山
Yanshi 偃师
Yuan Shikai 袁世凯
Ziya 子牙
Notes
1 Pan Mingjuan, “Gu Luoma yu Han Chang’ancheng,” 76–85.
2 Yu Xinzhong, “Qingdai chengshi shuihuanjing wenti tanxi,” 71–85; Yu Gengzhe, “Zhongguo zhonggu shiqi chengshi weisheng,” 65–75; and Feng Bing, “Sui Tang shiqi chengshi paishui,” 66-71.
3 Guo Shiqiang, and Li Lingfu, “Minguo Xi’an xiashuidao jiangou,” 100-106; Shi Hongshuai, “Minguo Xi’an chengshi shuili jianshe,” 29–36; He Jiangli, “Minguo qianqi Beijing de gonggong,” 127–134; and Jiang Xianbin, and Peng Shanmin, “Gonggong weisheng yu chengshi xiandaixing,” 97-101.
4 Li Yuxiang, “Qingdai Minguo shiqi Suzhou chengshi,” 171–180, 192; Liu Anbing, “Jindai Shanghai chengshi huanjing weisheng,” 85–92, 127; and Liao Dawei, and Luo Hong, “Cong Huajie laji zhili,” 24–33, 188.
5 Wu Junfan, “Xuanxie yu jinghua,” 105–115.
6 For the significance of China’s modernization process from the perspective of ecological change, see Xia Mingfang, Wenming de “shuangxiang”, 42–44.
7 Yu Xinzhong has made an innovative contributions to modern sanitary and environmental history, publishing “Qingdai Jiangnan de weisheng guannian yu xingwei ji qi jindai bianqian chutan,” “Weishengshi yu huanjingshi,” and similar Some other scholars also have studied urban sewage clearing in Beijing and Guangzhou, among them Du Lihong (“1930 niandai de Beiping chengshi wuwu guanli gaige”), Pan Shuhua (“Minguo shiqi Guangzhou de fenhui chuli yu chengshi shenghuo”), Zhu Yueqin (“Minguo Nanjing huanwei shouyun guanli wenti yanjiu), and Zhu Huiying (“Minguo shiqi Tianjin huanjing weisheng guanli).
8 McDonnell, “The History of Urban Ecology,” 5–14.
9 Typical representatives are Melosi, The Sanitary City; and Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis.
10 Hou Shen, Wu qiang zhi cheng, 34.
11 Forster, Marx’s Ecology, 13.
12 Marx, Ziben lun, vol. 1, 579.
13 Moore, The Transformation of the Earth, 55.
14 Wang Lihua, “Guanyu Zhongguo jindai huanjingshi yanjiu,” 7.
15 Kangxi, Tianjinwei zhi, 6.
16 “Tianjin,” 6.
17 Jia Xiuqian, “Tianjin paishui wenti tantao,” 50.
18 Research shows that there are more water-related places names in Tianjin than in other cities. See Tan Ruwei, Tianjin fangyan wenhua yanjiu, 99–100; and “Tianjin qinshui diming kao,” 67–76, 82.
19 “Xiancheng nei tu shuo diyi.”
20 “Di’an,” 18–19.
21 According to Wu Qingzhou, lakes in the ancient cities of China were part of their drainage systems. Lakes in cities could store water to reduce waterlogging, and lakes outside cities could adjust inundations and retain water. See Wu Qingzhou, Zhongguo gudai chengshi fanghong yanjiu, 173.
22 Tianjin fu zhi, vol. 5, 2.
23 Ibid., 1.
24 For the development of Tianjin water conservancy for farming, see Jiang Chao, “Ming Qing shiqi Tianjin de shuili yingtian,” 234–239, 244; and “Ming Qing shiqi Tianjin de shuili yingtian (xu),” 223–226.
25 “Guanji er,” 71.
26 “Fu shuili yingtian,” 14.
27 “Yudi wu,” 71.
28 “Gaishan qingjie shiye,” Yishi bao, November 26, 1936.
29 “San qu Qibaohe bei dongxingli yidai huishui layun” [Three Districts and Seven Bao in Dongxing Li, Hebei Province], April 11, 1946, Tianjin shizhengfu weisheng gongchengchu dang’an [The Health Engineering Office of Tianjin Municipal Government], file no. j0091-1-000079.
30 “Tebie yiqu gonggong ertiao hutong shuidao shutong” [Dredging of Two Hutong Waterway in Special First District], March 11, 1946, Tianjin shizhengfu weisheng gongchengchu dang’an [The Health Engineering Office of Tianjin Municipal Government], file no. j0091-1-000077.
31 Wang Huatang, Tianjin, 105.
32 Evolution of Tianjin Political Customs records that “after the Boxer Uprising the foreign concessions expanded to the southeast corner of the city, … from the southeast corner to the south gate,” and “every year narrow city roads were enlarged and then the old villages were connected to the city and became city streets.” The area between south gate to the Sea Light Temple area was also included into the markets and streets, which showed the general trend of urban expansion. See Tianjin xian xin zhi, 12.
33 The continuous development of the sewage system in the old city further guided the Nanyawa puddle water into the Guangrentang Reservoir. “Tianjin nan shi ge shang shang gong weishengju bing gao,” Dagong bao, August 29, 1909, 2.
34 Dong Kunjing, Tianjin tonglan, 75.
35 For the disputes caused by the sewage transformation of Wall River, see Cao Mu, “Ziyuan, huanjing yu quanyi,” 275–288.
36 “Tianjinshi shang xia shuidao gongcheng” [Tianjin Sewer Project], December 31, 1947, Weisheng gongcheng chu shangxia shuidao gongcheng juan [Sewer Project of the Health Engineering Office], file no. j0090-1-003950.
37 “Jiajia daqiao paichusuo houheyan liushuigou xiuli shi” [Repair of Ditches Along the Back River Behind Jiajiaqiao Police Station], June 3, 1939, Tianjin tebie shi gongshu weishengju dang’an [Archives of Health Bureau of Tianjin Special Municipal Office], file no. j0115-1-000923.
38 “Xiang jingchaju suoyao yuanbaoche” [Asking for Handcarts from the Police Station], December 8,1945, Tianjinshi zhengfu weisheng gongchengchu dang’an [Archives of Health Engineering Office of Tianjin Municipal Government], file no. j0091-1-000073.
39 “Handbook of Tianjin Old British Concession” stipulated that for health reasons, soil collection from Wanzi River, Haihe River beach and soil collection pits was not allowed from May 1 to September 30 each year, and should be prohibited unless specially approved by the Health Bureau. Mining soil in water pits was to be completely prohibited. “Tianjin jiu Ying zujie zhangcheng shouce” [Handbook of Tianjin Old British Concession] (1924), Waiwen dang’an [Foreign Language Archives], file no. w53-1-1196.
40 “Nankai daxue liyong qiangzi heni chui dian Balitai xiaozhi” [Nankai University Uses the Wall River Mud to Fill Balitai Site], February 25, 1946, file no. j0091-1-000124.
41 Yang Zhifu, et al., Feiliao shiyong erbai ti, 96.
42 The references in this paragraph are from “Guanyu chengyun ge hean huishuikou zangshuigouni ji guapi caiye deng xiang” [Transport of Ditch Mud and Vegetable Leaves of the River Bank], 1938, Tianjin tebie shi gongshu weishengju dang’an [Archives of Health Bureau of Tianjin Special Municipal Office], file no. j0115-1-000545.
43 “Yu jingting heban feiliaochang shi” [Joint Fertilizer Plant Work with Police Department], January 11, 1923, Chengfu xintuo gongsi jingli kaiyuan kenye gufen youxian gongsi dang’an [Archives of Chengfu Trust Company, Kaiyuan Reclamation Co., Ltd.], file no. j0188-1-000160.
44 “Wu Xueshi, Meng Qingchen gou huitu wa gouni shi” [Wu Xueshi and Meng Qingchen’s Purchase of River Silt and Digging Ditch Mud], January 28, 1942, Tianjin tebie shi gongshu weishengju dang’an [Archives of Health Bureau of Tianjin Special Municipal Office], file no. j0115-1-000545.
45 “Chilong he yuni zuo feiliao” [Chilong River Silt as Fertilizer], February 1, 1946, Tianjinshi zhengfu weisheng gongchengchu dang’an [Archives of Health Engineering Office of Tianjin Municipal Government], file no. j0091-1-000077.
46 For specific examples of urban drainage in ancient China, see Xu Hong, “Gudai duyi paishui xitong de liubian,” Zhongguo wenhua bao, February 18, 2014, 8.
47 Tianjinshi dang’anguan, Tianjin Ying zujie gongbuju shiliao xuanbian, 99.
48 Rasmussen, Tianjin zujie shi (Chatu ben), 289.
49 Ricketts, Tumu gongchengshi biaozhun shouce, 1287.
50 “Tianjinshi xiashuidao xianzhuang” [Current Status of Sewers in Tianjin], November 15, 1945, Tianjinshi zhengfu weisheng gongchengchu dang’an [Archives of the Health Engineering Office of Tianjin Municipal Government], file no. j0090-1-002874.
51 In July 1919, the Soviet revolutionary government declared that it would abandon all the privileges acquired in China during Russia’s imperial era. In 1924, the Chinese government formally took over the Russian concession. See Yao Shixin, “Tianjin E zujie gaikuang,” 176–177.
52 Ricketts, Tumu gongchengshi biaozhun shouce, 310–311.
53 “Tianjinshi xiashuidao xianzhuang diaocha baogao ji xiufu jihuashu” [Investigation Report of Tianjin Sewer Conditions and Restoration Plan], February 21, 1946, Tianjinshi zhengfu weisheng gongchengchu dang’an [Archives of Health Engineering Office of Tianjin Municipal Government], file no. j0090-1-002874.
54 Ao zujie shiliao zhuanti xiaozu, “Tianjin Ao zujie neimu jishi,” 131.
55 “Fa Jing lu zhuanshi dian,” July 15, 1919, 197.
56 Nankai daxue zhengzhi xuehui, Tianjin zujie ji tequ, 9.
57 “Tianjinshi xiashuidao xianzhuang diaocha baogao ji xiufu jihuashu” [Investigation Report of Tianjin Sewer Conditions and Restoration Plan], February 21, 1946, Tianjinshi zhengfu weisheng gongchengchu dang’an [Archives of Health Engineering Office of Tianjin Municipal Government], file no. j0090-1-002874.
58 “Jieshou Tianjin Bi zujie jiyao,” 11.
59 Jing Cheng, “Xingjiang shouhui zhi Tianjin Bi zujie,” 6.
60 “Zhu Ri zujie zhe zhuyi,” Dagong bao, November 9, 1921, 2.
61 “Zhaohe san nian (1928 nian) mintuan,” 158.
62 “Tianjin tebieshi shimin jiexiu xieshui gouguan zanxing guize” [Interim Rules for Tianjin Special City Citizens], 1944, Tianjinshi zhengfu weisheng gongchengchu dang’an [Archives of Health Engineering Office of Tianjin Municipal Government], file no. j0090-1-002882.
63 “Geren shenqing anzhuang xiashuidao shebei” [Personal Application for Installation of Sewer Equipment], April 3, 1946, Tianjin shizhengfu weisheng gongchengchu dang’an [The Health Engineering Office of Tianjin Municipal Government], file no. j0091-1-000081.
64 “Tianjin shizhengfu weisheng gongchengchu xiashuidao gongwusuo jieshou gongwuju yijiao ge choushuifang jubao” [The Sewer Works Office of the Tianjin Municipal Government’s Health Engineering Department Accepts the Handover of the Detailed Reports of Pumping Houses by the Works Bureau], January 17, 1946, Tianjin shizhengfu weisheng gongchengchu dang’an [The Health Engineering Department of Tianjin Municipal Government], file no. j0091-1-000043.
65 Meng Zhaoe, “Tianjinshi xiashuidao xiufu yu yanghu,” 42.
66 The citation in this paragraph is from “Benshi shimin taowa huafenjing ji jiaokuan” [Citizens of This City Dug Sewage in Septic-Tanks and Took Payment], August 1947, Tianjinshi gongwuju dang’an [Archives of Tianjin Municipal Bureau of Public Works], file no. j0090-1-000624.
67 “Mianchu yiqu (ji jiu Ri zujie) yunchu fenbian Zeren” [Exemption from Collecting Sewage in the First District (the old Japanese Concession)], Tianjin jingchaju dang’an [Archives of the Tianjin Police Department], file no. j0219-3-030590.
68 Marx, Ziben lun, 579.
69 For example, in 1924, when Kaiyuan Reclamation Company lacked fertilizer, as well as transporting sewage as fertilizer from the city, it also tried to buy artificial fertilizer as supplement, since imported artificial fertilizers had begun to occupy a share in the fertilizer market. See “Huibao linsuan huaxue feiliao zhi youdian” [The Advantages of Phosphoric Acid Chemical Fertilizer], March 14, 1924, Chengfu xintuo gongsi jingli kaiyuan kenye gufen youxian gongsi dang’an [Archives of Chengfu Trust Company, Kaiyuan Reclamation Co., Ltd.], file no. j0188-1-000155.
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Mu CAO
CAO Mu is associate professor at the School of History and Culture, at Tianjin Normal University. His main research fields are Chinese environmental history and urban environmental history. Representative research articles include “Drinking Water, Artesian Wells, and Dental Fluorosis: The Exploration and Influence of Groundwater Resources in the Late Qing and the Early Republican Periods from a Global Perspective” [Yinshui, shenjing yu fuchibing: Quanqiuhua shiye xia Qingmo Minchu Tianjin dixiashui ziyuan kaifa ji yingxiang] (Qingshi yanjiu, no. 6 (2021): 29-43) and The Public Lavatory in Tianjin: A Change of Urban Faeces Disposal, Global Environment.