Development and comparison of aerial photograph aided visualization pipelines for LiDAR datasets

Figures & data

Table 1. Classification or segmentation process for extracting various features from LiDAR datasets.

Class	References
Ground	Kraus and Pfeifer (1998), Lohmann, Koch, and Schäffer (2000), Axelsson (2001), Sithole (2001), Roggero (2001), Brovelli, Cannata, and Longoni (2002, 2004), Kobler et al. (2007), Błaszczak-Ba̧k et al. (2011)
Buildings	Lemmens, Deijkers, and Looman (1997), Morgan and Habib (2002), Rottensteiner and Jansa (2002), Forlani et al. (2003), Tseng and Wang (2005), Awrangjeb, Zhang, and Fraser (2011), Hermosilla et al. (2011), Zhao, You, and Huang (2011)
Roads	Shamayleh and Khattak (2003), Hu, Tao, and Hu (2004), Clode, Rottensteiner, and Kootsookos (2005), Harvey and McKeown (2008), Samadzadegan, Hahn, and Bigdeli (2009), Zhao You, and Huang (2011)
Trees	Brandtberg (2002), Brandtberg et al. (2003), Fujisaki et al. (2003), Hyyppä et al. (2008)

Table 2. Description of the datasets used in this paper.

Data subset ID	Number of points
1	49,666
2	48,637
3	48,254
4	43,822
5	47,644

Note: All the datasets cover a 100 ×100 m area.

Figure 1. Heuristic-based processing pipelines: MDL and PMDL.

Table 3. Different visualization pipelines studied in this paper.

Pipeline	Nonstereo mode	Stereo mode
Point-based visualization	PL-PTS	AN-PTS
Delaunay triangulation	PL-DTRI	AN-DTRI
Delaunay triangulation followed by trimming	PL-TDTRI	AN-TDTRI
Delaunay tetrahedralization followed by exploding tetrahedra and trimming	PL-TDTET	AN-TDTET
Heuristic-based processing. Dome-shaped clusters rendered as points	PL-PMDL	AN-PMDL
Heuristic-based processing. Dome-shaped clusters generalized	PL-MDL	AN-MDL
CAD-based processing and video generation	PL-CAD

Figure 2. Layout of various visualization pipelines for confounding and determination of Hamiltonian paths.

Table 4. Notation, statistic and post-hoc analyzes for Friedman's test and Kruskal–Wallis test.

Friedman's test	Kruskal–Wallis test
Notations
: rank of sij, in	: rank of sij, in
Statistic
Friedman's: t denotes the number of row-wise ties for each row-wise rank
Kruskal–Wallis: t denotes the number of overall ties for each rank
Null hypothesis rejected, if for a level of significance α:
Post-hoc analysis: Processes i and j are termed different if:

Figure 3. Outputs from the point-based visualization themes.

Figure 4. Outputs of 2-simplex-based pipelines.

Figure 5. Outputs of the clustering algorithm (DBSCAN). The screen-shots have been provided for one of the datasets.

Table 5. Contingency table describing the efficacy of the heuristics.

		Manually identified
Heuristics		Sparse	Flat and wide	Dome shaped	Potentially containing planes
Sparse		5	0	0	0
Flat and wide		0	5	0	0
Dome shaped		0	0	15	1
Potentially containing planes		0	0	1	13

Source: Ghosh and Lohani (2011).

Figure 6. Visualization through the heuristic-based pipelines.

Figure 7. CAD-based visualization.

Table 6. Q and H statistic and P values for all the questions.

	Friedman's test		Kruskal–Wallis test
Q. No.	Q statistic	P value	H statistic	P value
1	3022.5772	≈0.00E+000	141.9547	2.4132E–024
2	2662.1177	≈0.00E+000	133.8197	1.0541E–022
3	2543.9386	≈0.00E+000	131.3701	3.2757E–022
4	2338.7483	≈0.00E+000	126.9111	2.5692E–021
5	2444.8502	≈0.00E+000	106.1568	3.4340E–017
6	1610.1333	≈0.00E+000	71.4586	1.7070E–010

Table 7. Question-wise ranks for Friedman's test (FT) and Kruskal–Wallis test (KW), their confirmation using Page's trend test and their consistencies using Spearman's ρ, Kendall's τ and Goodman and Kruskal's γ.

	Question 1		Question 2		Question 3		Question 4		Question 5		Question 6
	FT	KW	FT	KW	FT	KW	FT	KW	FT	KW	FT	KW
PL-PTS	13	13	13	13	13	13	12	12	13	13	13	13
PL-DTRI	8	7	8	8	9	8	10	9	8	8	7	7
PL-TDTRI	12	12	11	11	12	12	13	13	10.5	11	11	11
PL-DTET	10.5	10	10	10	11	10	9	8	10.5	10	10	9
PL-PMDL	10.5	11	7	7	6	6	11	11	9	7	8	8
PL-MDL	9	9	9	9	7	7	8	10	7	9	9	10
PL-CAD	2.5	2	1	1	1	1	1	1	3	1	6	6
AN-PTS	7	8	12	12	10	11	6	7	12	12	12	12
AN-DTRI	4	3	5	4	4	4	4	4	2	3	3	3
AN-TDTRI	6	6	6	6	8	9	5	6	6	6	5	5
AN-DTET	2.5	4	2	3	5	5	2	2	5	5	2	2
AN-PMDL	5	5	4	5	2	3	7	5	4	4	4	4
AN-MDL	1	1	3	2	3	2	3	3	1	2	1	1
	8.49E3	2.15E2	8.48E3	1.94E2	8.51E3	1.87E2	8.49E3	1.53E2	8.49E3	1.67E2	8.51E3	1.19E2
P value	0.00E+00	1.2E−48	0.00E+00	4.3E−44	0.00E+00	1.2E−42	0.00E+00	3.4E−35	0.00E+00	3.7E−38	0.00E+00	8.5E−28
ρ	0.9835		0.9890		0.9835		0.9670		0.9601		0.9945
τ	0.8974		0.9487		0.9231		0.8974		0.8461		0.9743
γ	0.8974		0.9487		0.9231		0.8974		0.8461		0.9743

Table 8. Overall rankings by using average column ranks for all questions and all the visualization pipelines.

Q. No.	PL-PTS	PL-DTRI	PL-TDTRI	PL-DTET	PL-PMDL	PL-MDL	PL-CAD	AN-PTS	AN-DTRI	AN-TDTRI	AN-DTET	AN-PMDL	AN-MDL
1	76	56	67	63	64	59	5	57	10	31	13	16	4
2	77	44	66	60	38	50	3	68	17	34	15	19	8
3	75	45	71	62	35	37	2	65	23	46	29	7	6
4	69	52	70	51	61	55	1	42	30	41	14	39	25
5	78	43	53	49	40	47	9	73	18	27	26	20	12
6	74	33	58	48	36	54	32	72	22	28	21	24	11
Sum	449	273	385	333	274	302	52	377	120	207	118	125	66
Avg.	74.83	45.50	64.17	55.50	45.67	50.33	8.67	62.83	20.00	34.50	19.67	20.83	11
H	253.4417
P value	2.6195E–047 (null hypothesis not accepted)
Rank	13	7.5	10.5	10.5	7.5	10.5	1.5	10.5	4	6	4	4	1.5
	59.4170
	1.2756E–014

Note: Rankings are confirmed through Page's trend test.

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