Measuring user preferences and behaviour in a topographic immersive virtual environment (TopoIVE) of 2D and 3D urban topographic data

Figures & data

Figure 1. Level of detail (LOD) for buildings according to OGC CityGML 2.0 standard (source: authors).

Figure 2. Experimental design: (a) plan of the fictitious city derived from topographic data (oriented north); (b) bird’s-eye view of 3D and 2D representations of buildings; and (c) first-person view of 3D and 2D representations of buildings in the TopoIVE from the starting point of the experiment, with user height set at 175 cm (source: authors).

Figure 3. Mental rotation test (MRT) to measure the spatial ability of participants involved in the study (adapted from Vandenberg and Kuse 1978).

Figure 4. 3D (left) and 2D (right) mode in the pre-experiment HMD VR app (source: authors).

Figure 5. The experimental procedure (left), setup and equipment (top-right), and plan of the TopoIVE (bottom-right). The participant’s location in the TopoIVE and their view is presented in real-time on the laptop display for monitoring by the researchers. A video indicating what participants saw in the HMD when conducting the experiment is available at: https://youtu.be/TFcdyX_txfc.

Table 1. Participants’ stated motivations for choosing the mode of representation in the TopoIVE.

	2D mode	3D mode
Free exploration task group	- better view of a normally obstructed area with buildings (3%) - easier determination of travel direction (3%) - more visible passages between buildings (3%)	- closer to reality / more realistic (33%) - more interesting look / visually more attractive (18%) - better identification of the type of buildings (15%)
Navigational task group	- easier orientation in the field (15%) - easier navigation to the destination (12%) - better view of a normally obstructed area with buildings (6%)	- closer to reality / more realistic (33%) - more interesting look / visually more attractive (12%) - better identification of the type of buildings (6%)
Motivation type	practical aspects related to navigation	aesthetic aspects related to the visual experience of the simulated environment

Figure 6. Percentage of time that participants from both groups spent in 2D and 3D modes of representation and their preferences.

Figure 7. Percentage of time that participants in the free exploration group spent in 2D and 3D modes of representation and their preferences.

Figure 8. Percentage of time that participants in the navigational task group spent in 2D and 3D modes of representation and their preferences.

Table 2. Number of switches between modes and mode preferences from the post-test questionnaire for participants of both groups.

Both groups	IN TOTAL [n=60]	MRT=5 [n=38]	MRT<5 [n=22]	Female [n=31]	Male [n=29]	VR experience =yes [n=19]	VR experience =no [n=41]	RPG playing monthly or more [n=22]	RPG playing less frequently [n=38]	Normal vision =yes [n=40]	Normal vision =no [n=20]
sum	433	297	136	175	258	169	264	205	228	328	105
min	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
max	30	30	23	13	30	23	30	30	22	30	13
mean	7.2	7.8	6.2	5.6	8.9	8.9	6.4	9.3	6.0	8.2	5.2
median	6	7	4,5	5	8	8	6	8	5	7	4
% preference for 2D mode	23	26	18	19	28	26	22	32	18	15	28
% preference for 3D mode	77	74	82	81	72	74	78	68	82	85	72

Table 3. Number of switches between modes and mode preferences from the post-test questionnaire for participants in the free exploration group.

Free exploration task group	IN TOTAL [n=30]	SAT=5 [n=15]	SAT<5 [n=15]	Female [n=14]	Male [n=16]	VR experience =yes [n=9]	VR experience =no [n=21]	RPG playing monthly or more [n=10]	RPG playing less frequently [n=20]	Normal vision =yes [n=21]	Normal vison =no [n=9]
sum	225	128	97	75	150	74	151	108	117	175	50
min	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	1
max	30	30	23	10	30	23	30	30	15	30	12
mean	7.5	8.5	6.5	5.4	9.4	8.2	7.2	10.8	5.9	8.3	5.6
median	6	8	3	5	8	9	6	11	5	7	4
% preference for 2D mode	10	13	7	7	13	11	10	20	5	11	10
% preference for 3D mode	90	87	93	93	88	89	90	80	95	89	90

Table 4. Number of switches between modes and mode preferences from the post-test questionnaire for participants in the navigational task group.

Navigational task group	IN TOTAL [n=30]	MRT=5 [n=23]	MRT<5 [n=7]	Female [n=17]	Male [n=13]	VR experience =yes [n=10]	VR experience =no [n=20]	RPG playing monthly or more [n=12]	RPG playing less frequently [n=18]	Normal vision =yes [n=19]	Normal vision =no [n=11]
sum total	208	169	39	100	108	95	113	97	111	153	55
min	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
max	22	22	11	13	22	22	14	15	22	22	13
mean	6.9	7.3	5.6	5.9	8.3	9.5	5.7	8.1	6.2	8.1	5.0
median	6	6	6	5	8	8	5,5	8	5	7	4
% preference for 2D mode	37	35	43	29	46	40	35	42	33	18	47
% preference for 3D mode	63	65	57	71	54	60	65	58	67	82	53

Figure 9. Box plot indicating the frequency of switching between 2D and 3D modes of representation for male and female participants from both groups.

Figure 10. Box plot indicating the frequency of switching between 2D and 3D modes of representation and participants’ post-experiment mode preferences from both groups.

Figure 11. Tracks of participants in the TopoIVE from (a) the free exploration group (n = 30), and (b) the navigational task group (n = 30), with blue lines indicating the tracks recorded after participants had reached their destination.

Figure 12. Box plot indicating the total route length for participants from both groups (p-value = 0.017896).

Figure 13. Box plot indicating the total route length for participants with MRT <5 and MRT = 5 from both groups (p-value = 0.002439).

Figure 14. Tracks of participants in (a) the free exploration group, and (b) the navigational task group while using 2D mode.

Figure 15. Tracks of participants in (a) the free exploration group, and (b) the navigational task group while using 3D mode.

Figure 16. Track densities of (a) male participants from both groups (n = 29), and (b) female participants from both groups (n = 31).

Figure 17. Track densities of (a) male participants in the free exploration group (n = 16), and (b) female participants in the free exploration group (n = 14).

Figure 18. Track densities of (a) male participants in the navigational task group (n = 13), and (b) female participants in the navigational task group (n = 17).

Figure 19. Box plot indicating the count of route segments in the 3D mode for male and female participants from both groups whose MRT score is 5 (p-value = 0.037845).

Figure 20. Box plot indicating the average time in the 2D mode for male and female participants from both groups (p-value = 0.039079).

Table 5. Percentage of participants who walked over/through buildings while using 2D/3D mode.

Percentage of participants who walked over/through buildings		MRT=5	MRT<5	Female	Male	VR experience =yes	VR experience =no	RPG playing monthly or more	RPG playing less frequently
in 2D mode	Free exploration group	83	17	50	50	33	67	17	83
	Navigational task group	75	25	63	38	88	13	50	50
in 3D mode	Free exploration group	54	46	62	38	38	62	15	85
	Navigational task group	79	21	54	46	29	71	39	61

Vandenberg, S. G., and A. R. Kuse. 1978. “Mental Rotations, a Group Test of Three-Dimensional Spatial Visualization.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 47 (2): 599–604. doi:https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1978.47.2.599.

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Data availability statement

Data available within the article or its supplementary materials.