WMO: an ontology for the semantic enrichment of wetland monitoring data

Figures & data

Figure 1. Overview of a hierarchical collection of ontologies.

Figure 2. Methodology for developing WMO ontology.

Figure 3. The five modules of WMO and the relationship between modules.

Figure 4. Partial view of WMO wetland ecosystem module.

Table 1. CQs related to ecosystem module.

CQi	Competency question
1	What sub-ecosystems are included in wetlands?
2	What are the components of a wetland ecosystem?
3	What needs to be monitored in wetland ecosystems?
4	What are the processes in a wetland ecosystem?
5	What are the relationships between the components of wetland ecosystems?

Table 2. CQs related to monitoring indicator module.

CQi	Competency question
1	What are the threats to wetlands?
2	What are the causes of these threats?
3	What state changes have these threats caused?
4	What indicators can represent the impact of different states?
5	What measures have been taken to deal with these impacts?

Figure 5. Partial view of WMO monitoring indicator module.

Table 3. CQs related to monitor module.

CQi	Competency question
1	What are the monitoring platform categories?
2	What sensors are deployed on the platform?
3	What are the monitoring sensor categories?
4	What wetland properties do the sensors monitor?
5	How can monitoring results be accurately represented?

Figure 6. Partial view of WMO monitoring context module.

Figure 7. Partial view of the WMO geospatial module.

Table 4. CQs related to geospatial module.

CQi	Competency question
1	Where are the monitoring stations deployed in the wetland?
2	Where is the sub-lake in the wetland?
3	Where is the wetland covered by water?

Table 5. CQs related to temporal context module.

CQi	Competency question
1	What is the chlorophyll content in water at a certain time?
2	What is the average temperature measured every hour on a day?
3	How many migratory birds are monitored at noon every day this winter in the wetland?

Figure 8. Partial view of WMO temporal module.

Figure 9. Query the information on platforms and sensors monitoring Zhanbeihu.

Figure 10. Query of multidomain, multisource, multimodal wetland monitoring data with the WMO.

Table 6. Comparison between WMO and other ontologies.

Ontology	Building purpose	Methodology	Upper-level Ontology	Reused ontologies	Spatiotemporal information
Wetland protection ontology (Xing, Han, and Tao 2009)	Provide the wetland protection domain an effective approach to accomplish knowledge management and information sharing	WP-Onto Method (Xing, Han, and Tao 2009)	None	None	None
Observational process ontology (Wang et al. 2020)	For river water quality monitoring and relevant data observation processing	Ontology Development 101	DOLCE	None	Basic
ORFFM (Mughal et al. 2021)	For knitting the hierarchies of water-producing sources, water distribution, and diversion mechanisms	Modular	None	None	Basic
MEMOn (Masmoudi et al. 2020)	Support semantic interoperability, data integration, and linking of heterogeneous environmental data	Agile and Modular	BFO	SOSA, ENVO, mid-level ontologies, etc.	Basic
WMO	Integrate static and dynamic monitoring data with spatiotemporal information in a uniform way and support the great variety of applications of wetland protection and assessment	Agile and Modular	BFO	ENVO, SOSA, GeoSPARQL, owl-time, etc.	Enhanced

Xing, Jun, Min Han, and Xueheng Tao. 2009. “A Wetland Protection Domain Ontology Construction for Knowledge Management and Information Sharing.” Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal 15 (2): 298–315. doi:10.1080/10807030902761213.

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Masmoudi, Maroua, Mohamed Hedi Karray, Sana Ben Abdallah Ben Lamine, Hajer Baazaoui Zghal, and Bernard Archimede. 2020. “MEMON: Modular Environmental Monitoring Ontology to Link Heterogeneous Earth Observed Data.” Environmental Modelling & Software 124: 104581. doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2019.104581.

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Data availability statement

Data available on request from the authors.