Air quality and waste management analysis of used ayurvedic oil in an off-road twin cylinder tractor engine

Figures & data

Figure 1. Constituents of ayurvedic oil

Table 1. Technical details of the WAO methyl ester formulation process

Process parameter	Specification
Process used	Heterogeneous catalysed ultrasonicated transesterification process
Process temperature	40°C
Catalyst	0.5 wt%-Ba(OH)28H2O
Alcohol	Methanol
Process time	20 min
Methanol to WAO molar ratio	6:1

Table 2. Properties of WAO biodiesel blends [14]

Properties	Apparatus	Standard	WAO10	WAO15	WAO20	Diesel (No-2)
Density, kg/m^3	Hydrometer	ASTM D1298	839.7	844.1	854.6	830.4
Kinematic viscosity @40°C, cSt	Panomex Viscometer.	ASTM D445	2.72	3.07	3.52	4.30
Flash point, °C	Pensky-Martens Apparatus	ASTM D 93	62	66	72	57
Fire point, °C	Pensky-Martens Apparatus	ASTM D 93	57	61	65	49.5
Calorific value, kJ/kg	Automatic bomb calorimeter, IKA	ASTM D240	42,544	42,242	41,972	43,128
Cetane number	Ignition quality tester	ASTM D613	52.4	53.6	54.5	52
Copper strip corrosion	Koehler copper strip corrosion test apparatus	ASTM D130	1a	1a	1a	1a
Pour point, °C	Koehler Cloud & Pour Point analyser	ASTM D97	−13.3	−14.0	−16.6	−30.0
Sulphur content, ppm	Hoskin sulphur analyser	ASTM 2622	2	3.5	5	7

Figure 2. ¹H-NMR spectra of a) WAO b) WAO methyl ester

Figure 3. FT-IR spectra of a) WAO b) WAO methyl ester

Figure 4. Engine setup in schematic and photographic view

Table 3. Technical description of engine

Make	Mahindra
Model	Maximo
Injection system	Direct injection
Cylinder number	Two
Cylinder bore x stroke	83 x 84 mm
Compression ratio	18.5:1
Maximum power	18.4 KW
Maximum engine speed	3600 rpm
Cooling system	Water cooling
Injection timing	17.0 bTDC

Table 4. Technical description of engine control system

Electric supply	230 ± 10 VAC, 50 Hz, 1 phase
Data acquisition device	NI USB-6210, 16-bit, 250kS/s.
Piezo powering unit	Model AXE-409.
Temperature sensor	Type RTD, PT100 and Thermocouple, Type K,
Temperature transmitter	Type 2 wire, I/P RTD PT100, 0–100°C, O/P 4–20 mA, Input TC, 0–1200°C, Output 4–20 mA
Load indicator	Digital, Range 0–50 Kg, Supply 230VAC
Temperature indicator	Digital Multipoint, 6 points, I/P thermocouples
Load sensor	Load cell, type strain gauge, range 0–50 Kg
Fuel flow transmitter	DP transmitter, Range 0–500 mm WC
Air flow transmitter	Pressure transmitter, Range (-) 250 mm WC
Rotameter	Engine cooling 40–400 LPH; Calorimeter 25–250 LPH

Figure 5. Engine performance (a) BTE (b) BSFC

Figure 6. Combustion qualities (a) cylinder pressure vs crank angle (b) net heat release rate vs crank angle

Figure 7. Emission characteristics (a) HC (b) CO (c) NOx (d) smoke opacity

Table 5. Technical description of emission analyser

	Measurement range	Accuracy
CO	0.000–10.00 vol.%	0.001 vol.%
NO	0–5000 ppm vol.	≤1 ppm vol.
HC	0–20,000 ppm vol.	≤1 ppm vol.
Smoke opacity	0–100%	0.1%

Table 6. Instrument uncertainties

Measurement	Accuracy	Uncertainty (%)
Torque	±0.1 Nm	±0.3%
Speed	±1 rpm	±0.05%
EGT indicator	±1°C	±0.20%
NO	±1 ppm vol.	±0.6 ppm vol.
CO	±0.001 vol.%	±0.5 vol.%
HC	±1 ppm vol.	±0.6 ppm vol.
Smoke	±0.1%	±3.6%