An exploratory investigation of body esteem, body dissatisfaction and body change behaviours in sexual minority young adults from a risk and protective perspective

Figures & data

Table 1. Sample demographic characteristics.

	Sample included in analyses (N = 8, 435)
	No.	%
Gender
Male	2, 489	29.4
Female	5, 946	70.6
Sexual Orientation
Heterosexual, i.e. straight	6, 496	75.4
Lesbian	167	1.9
Gay	256	3.0
Bisexual	950	11.0
Pansexual	121	1.4
I’m not sure/questioning	445	5.2
Ethnicity
White Irish	6, 460	76.8
Any White background other than Irish	980	11.7
Black or Black Irish	115	1.4
Mixed background	190	2.3
Asian or Asian Irish	478	5.7
Other	165	2.0
Irish Traveller/Roma	22	.2
Age (Range 18–25)	M = 20.35	SD = 1.90

Table 2. Body image, body change behaviours, risk/protective factors for body image across male sexual orientation categories.

Male
	Heterosexual (n = 1,975)	Gay (n = 256)	Bisexual (n = 169)	Questioning (n = 89)
Body Image	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	df	F/ χ^2
Body Esteem	22.15(6.75)	18.4 (7.06)	17.9 (6.38)	17.87(6.82)	3, 1671	34.60***	1 > 2,3,4
	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)
Body dissatisfaction					6	82.6***
Dissatisfied	29.4 (−3.1)	49.1 (4.0)	49 (3.2)	54.8 (3.1)
Neutral	26.5 (.1)	24.8 (−.5)	25.8 (−.1)	28.8 (.4)
Satisfied	44.1 (2.7)	26.1 (−3.3)	25.2 (−2.9)	16.4 (−3.2)
Body Change Behaviours	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)
Bulk up attempt	67.7 (2.1)	41.9 (−4.1)	58.3 (−.8)	49.3 (−1.5)	3	67.27***
Bulk up using exercise	56.8 (1.8)	36.7 (−3.7)	51.5 (.4)	40.4 (−1.7)	3	43.75***
Bulk up using steroids	5.4 (.8)	4.7 (−.2)	3 (−1.2)	1 (−1.6)	3	5.05
Weight loss attempt	57.5 (−1.2)	68.3 (1.7)	72.2 (2.0)	57.5 (−.2)	3	20.3***
Weight loss using exercise	43.1 (−.4)	45.3 (.4)	52.1 (1.6)	36 (−1.1)	3	7.51
Weight loss by eating less	39.5 (−2.0)	56.6 (3.5)	55.6 (2.6)	41.6 (−1.0)	3	40.20***
Weight loss using supplements	3.5 (−.2)	4.3 (.6)	3 (−.4)	4.5 (.5)	3	0.83
Sports participation	45.6 (3.3)	18.8 (−5.2)	26 (−2.8)	21.9 (−2.5)	3	86.8***
Attend gym	43.4 (2.4)	24 (−3.7)	29.1 (−2.0)	24.7 (−2.0)	3	46.39***
Risk factors	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)
Been bullied	57.6 (−1.2)	64.4 (.8)	72.9 (2.0)	71.2 (1.2)	3	18.2***
Been discriminated against	17.4 (−4.9)	63 (11.7)	33.1 (2.3)	15.2 (−1.4)	3	220.04***
Protective factors	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)
Resilience	19.34 (5.06)	18.80 (5.43)	18.18 (5.05)	18.33 (6.21)	3, 1671	2.85
Social support	59.58 (14.48)	58.78 (14.24)	55.96 (14.79)	53.91 (14.58)	3, 1671	5.55**	1 > 3,4
Comfort with sexuality	9.19 (1.34)	7.66 (2.02)	6.78 (2.37)	5.69 (2.34)	3	H = 489.68***	1 > 2,3,4 2,3 > 4

Note: M = mean, SD = standard deviation, % = percentage, SR = standardised residual of chi square. Bolded numerical values indicate standardised residuals ≥ ± 2. 1 = Heterosexual, 2 = Lesbian, 3 = Bisexual, 4 = Questioning, H = The H Statistic for Kruskal Wallis test.

*** = significant p < .001,

** = significant p < .01.

Table 3. Body image, body change behaviours, risk/protective factors for body image across female sexual orientation categories.

Female
	Heterosexual (n = 4, 521)	Lesbian (n = 167)	Bisexual (n = 781)	Questioning (n = 356)	Pansexual (n = 121)
Body Image	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	df	F/ χ^2
Body Esteem	17.9 (7.06)	17.53 (7.08)	16.73 (7.49)	16.9 (7.3)	16.63 (6.85)	4, 4170	5.59***	1 > 3
	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)
Body dissatisfaction						8	31.01***
Dissatisfied	44.9 (−1.6)	46.7 (1.0)	53.4 (2.6)	51.7 (1.3)	52.6 (0.9)
Neutral	25.3 (1.0)	22.8 (.4)	20.7 (−2.1)	23.7 (−.3)	29.8 (1.1)
Satisfied	29.8 (1.2)	24.8 (−.9)	26 (−1.4)	24.6 (−1.4)	17.5 (−2.2)
Body Change Behaviours	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)
Bulk up attempt	20.2 (−.7)	25.5 (1.3)	21.8 (.6)	22.3 (.6)	24.6 (0.9)	4	4.69
Bulk up using exercise	18 (−.7)	22.8 (1.3)	19.2 (.5)	20.2 (.8)	23.1 (1.2)	4	5.34
Bulk up using steroids	0.8 (.4)	1.2 (.7)	0.3 (−1.5)	0.2 (.3)	0 (−0.9)	4	4.08
Weight loss attempt	87.8 (−.3)	89.3 (.1)	91.5 (.9)	87.2 (−.2)	90.2 (0.3)	4	9.54
Weight loss by exercising	64.3 (.7)	58.1 (−.9)	59.9 (−1.2)	36.5 (0)	60.3 (−0.4)	4	8.02
Weight loss by eating less	70.4 (−.8)	70.7 (−.1)	75.9 (1.5)	74.2 (.6)	81.8 (1.3)	4	18.02
Weight loss using supplements	6.8 (−.2)	6.6 (−.1)	7.6 (.7)	6.7 (−.1)	9.1 (0.9)	4	1.54
Sports participation	28.8 (2.1)	26.2 (−.2)	18.6 (−4.3)	24 (−1.1)	12.3 (−3.0)	4	45.90***
Attended gym	39.9 (3.1)	18.8 (−3.6)	27.9 (−4.1)	28.4 (−2.6)	23.7 (−2.3)	4	81.65***
Risk factors % (SR)		% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)	% (SR)
Been bullied	53 (−2.3)	58.8 (.5)	69.7 (4.6)	60 (.9)	74 (2.4)	4	76.95***
Been discriminated against	17 (−.6)	63.2 (10.4)	39.2 (.4)	22 (.1)	49 (5.7)	4	333.83***
Protective factors	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)
Resilience	17.53 (4.9)	16.20 (4.65)	16.16 (5.05)	16.70 (4.66)	15.7 (4.50)	4, 4170	14.71***	1 > 3,5,2
Social support	63.08 (14.36)	58.94 (14.62)	61.24 (14.00)	59.59 (13.68)	60.02 (12.38)	4, 4170	11.92***	1 > 2,3,4
Comfort with sexuality	9.17 (1.28)	7.20 (2.01)	7.25 (2.17)	6.27 (2.26)	7.28 (2.13)	4	H =1312.34***	1 > 2,3,4,5. 2, 3, 5 > 4.

Note: M = mean, SD = standard deviation, % = percentage, SR = standardised residual of chi square. 1 = Heterosexual, 2 = Lesbian, 3 = Bisexual, 4 = Questioning, 5 = Pansexual. Bolded numerical values indicate standardised residuals ≥ ± 2. H = The H Statistic for Kruskal Wallis test.

*** = significant p < .001,** = significant p < .01

Table 4. Multiple regression of risk and protective factors for high body esteem across sexual orientations in men.

	Heterosexual		Gay		Bisexual		Questioning
	(Adjusted r^2 = .25)		(Adjusted r^2 = .34)		(Adjusted r^2 = .36)		(Adjusted r^2 = .35)
	ß	CI (LB-UB)	ß	CI (LB-UB)	ß	CI (LB-UB)	ß	CI (LB-UB)
Demographic
Age	0.29**	(0.12, 0.46)	0.37	(−.11, .85)	0.48	(−0.13, 1.07)	1.11*	(.10, 2.12)
Ethnicity (Non-White Irish)	1.68***	(0.85, 2.51)	1.38	(−0.85, 3.61)	2.69*	(0.12, 5.25)	0.10	(−5.08, 5.30)
Body change
Muscle building	0.18	(−0.57, 0.94)	0.21	(−1.65, 2.07)	−1.68	(−3.92, 0.56)	−3.99*	(−7.42, −.55)
Weight loss	−0.75	(−2.45, .96)	0.52	(−3.98, 5.01)	2.12	(−2.42, 6.65)	7.95	(−1.45, 17.36)
Weight loss by exercise	−1.10	(−2.44, .22)	−0.65	(−3.18, 1.89)	−0.03	(−3.18, 3.13)	−3.58	(−8.81, 1.66)
Weight loss by eating less	−0.61	(−1.73, .51)	−1.80	(−5.60, 2.00)	−5.81**	(−9.14, −2.48)	−5.68	(−13.55, 2.18)
Supplement/steroid use	−1.15*	(−2.29, −.01)	0.11	(.94, −2.99)	−5.16**	(−8.99, −1.33)	−4.10	(−10.21, 2.01)
Gym attendance	0.22	(−0.51, .95)	−1.44	(−3.77, .90)	3.76**	(1.36, 6.16)	3.48	(−0.62, 7.58)
Sport participation	1.42***	(0.74, 2.10)	1.50	(−0.83, 3.83)	−0.16	(−2.37, 2.05)	5.26**	(1.48, 9.04)
Risk
Discrimination	−0.30	(−1.22, .63)	−1.22	(−3.16, .71)	−1.23	(−3.41, .95)	−1.33	(−6.16, 3.50)
Bullying	−1.18**	(−1.85, −.50)	−0.20	(−2.21, 1.81)	1.64	(−.76, 4.03)	−1.33	(−4.81, 2.16)
Protective
Comfort with sexuality	0.38**	(0.13, .63)	0.56*	(0.10, 1.02)	0.36	(−.09, .81)	0.48	(−0.26, 1.22)
Resilience	0.40***	(0.33, .47)	0.44***	(0.25, .62)	0.38**	(0.16, 0.59)	0.05	(−0.24, .34)
Social Support	0.09***	(0.07, .11)	0.11**	(0.04, .18)	0.02	(−.05, .09)	0.13*	(0.02, .24)

Note. ß = Unstandardised beta coefficient, CI = Confidence intervals, LB = Lower Bound, UB = Upper Bound. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

Table 5. Multiple regression of risk and protective factors for high body esteem across sexual orientations in women.

	Heterosexual		Lesbian		Bisexual		Questioning		Pansexual
	(Adjusted r^2 = .30)		(Adjusted r^2 = .18)		(Adjusted r^2 = .27)		(Adjusted r^2 = .28)		(Adjusted r^2 = .24)
	ß	CI (LB-UB)	ß	CI (LB-UB)	ß	CI (LB-UB)	ß	CI (LB-UB)	ß	CI (LB-UB)
Demographic
Age	0.40***	(0.29, .52)	−0.01	(−0.60, .57)	0.49**	(0.21, .78)	0.59*	(0.13, 1.06)	0.86*	(0.03, 1.70)
Ethnicity (Non White Irish)	2.41***	(1.86, 2.96)	2.35	(−0.53, 5.24)	0.31	(−97, 1.58)	2.04*	(−0.07, 4.01)	1.38	(−1.68, 4.45)
Body change
Muscle building	0.54	(−0.01, 1.08)	−1.33	(−4.17, 1.51)	2.52***	(1.20, 3.84)	0.69	(−1.23, 2.60)	1.28	(−2.00, 4.57)
Weight loss	−1.99***	(−3.03, −.96)	−4.98	(−10.67, .70)	−3.23*	(−6.18, −.28)	−6.38**	(−10.34, −2.41)	−6.47	(−15.71, 2.78)
Weight loss by exercise	0.40	(−0.19, 1.01)	−0.43	(−3.42, 2.56)	−0.32	(−1.66, 1.03)	2.53*	(0.51, 4.55)	−0.12	(−3.30, 3.07)
Weight loss by eating less	−2.44***	(−3.16, −1.73)	−1.36	(−5.45, 2.73)	−1.43	(−3.55, .62)	0.06	(−2.98, 3.04)	1.69	(−5.93, 9.30)
Supplement/steroid use	−3.55***	(−4.33, −2.77)	−3.57	(−8.6, 1.47)	−2.26*	(−4.18, −.33)	−5.06***	(−7.76, −2.35)	−3.03	(−7.92, 1.86)
Sport participation	0.79**	(0.31, 1.26)	2.30	(−0.50, 5.10)	−0.25	(−1.71, 1.20)	0.63	(−1.25, 2.51)	0.49	(−3.59, 4.67)
Gym attendance	−0.57*	(−1.03, −.11)	1.01	(−2.31, 4.34)	−0.75	(−2.03, .52)	−1.97*	(−3.80, −.13)	−0.21	(−3.59, 3.18)
Risk
Discrimination	0.47	(−0.22, 1.07)	0.67	(−1.91, 3.24)	−0.01	(−1.14, 1.11)	0.10	(−1.95, 2.15)	0.32	(−2.48, 3.13)
Bullying	−1.12***	(−1.54, −.69)	−2.66*	(−5.19, −.13)	−0.66	(−1.85, .53)	−0.34	(−1.92, 1.24)	−1.20	(−4.39, 1.99)
Protective
Comfort with sexuality	0.37***	(0.21, .53)	0.23	(−0.36, .82)	0.33*	(0.08, .57)	0.38*	(0.03, .72)	0.53	(−0.11, 1.17)
Resilience	0.40***	(0.35, .44)	0.15	(−0.14, .42)	0.43***	(0.32, .54)	0.28**	(0.10, .48)	0.63***	(0.31, .96)
Social Support	0.08***	(0.07, .10)	0.08	(−0.00, .17)	0.10***	(0.06, .14)	0.11***	(0.05, .17)	−0.03	(−0.14, .08)

Note. ß = Unstandardised beta coefficient, CI = Confidence intervals, LB = Lower Bound, UB = Upper Bound. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .00