Sustainable socio-ecological transformations in agriculture: cases from South Asia

Figures & data

Figure 1. Case studies from South Asia with Unique Adaptations.

Source: Map: South Asia – Wikipedia. Author’s Compilation: Cases Superimposed

Table 1. Scales of change in transformation cases.

Sr No.	Case Study	Scales of Transformation
1	Sylhet/Barisal/Moulvibazar/Sunamganj (Bangladesh)	**
2	Assam (India)	**
3	Nepal (Nepal)	**
4	Raydas Bari Char (Bangladesh)	**
5	Rajasthan (India)	**
6	Koraput District (India)	*** (negative transformation)
7	Telangana State (India)	**
8	Nawada village (India)	****

Source: Author’s Compilation.

Note on the scale: There are five scales of transformation as defined in this paper, namely, Economic Transformation, Governance and Policy Transformation, Technological Transformation, Social Transformation, and Behavioural Shifts. Each star in Table 1 represents one of the five transformations abovementioned.

Table 2. Case database.

Sr No	Case Study	Transformational Adaptation	Scales of Transformation
1	Sylhet/Barisal/Moulvibazar/Sunamganj (Bangladesh)	Integrated Rice-Duck Farming (IRDF). Introducing ducks in rice fields to increase yield and income for farmers. Ducklings of a certain age were introduced in the field and removed after a few months. The Rice-duck system is more economically rewarding and feasible, as found in the case. Moving towards a mixed farming system instead of depending solely on rice cultivation.	-Economic Transformation -Behavioural Shifts
2	Assam (India)	A suite of immediate and long-term adaptation measures are being used or planned to tackle the future threat of climate change. Rainwater Harvesting, Afforestation programs and the creation of wind barriers, Soil Mulching, Wind Barriers, and Artificial Irrigation, Maintain Biodiversity. Future transformation includes plant tolerant/resistant tea cultivars, organising awareness and training programs; Clean energy; Organic manures and fertilisers; Anti-erosion measures.	-Behavioural Shift -Social Transformation
3	Nepal (Nepal)	In Nepal, smallholder farmers’ adaptations result in higher productivity and efficiency levels than those farmers who do not adopt. A group of smallholder farmers adopt major adaptations to agricultural practices such as altering the timing of agricultural operations, divergence of on-farm activities, soil management through enhanced irrigation, and lowering tillage and contour farming, among other adaptation options. The collection of incremental adaptations leading to lowering hunger and poverty as envisioned in UN SDGs.	- Social Transformation - Behavioural shift
4	Raydas Bari Char (Bangladesh)	Char islands or riverine islands in Bangladesh are naturally vulnerable to seasonal floods, droughts etc., and climate change is anticipated to cause further vulnerability to a predominantly agrarian community. Traditional knowledge is used along with Individual Adaptations (ILA) and Planned Adaptation (PA). Several new adaptations include new crop varieties, new irrigation practices, timing changes of crop cycles, crop rotations, livestock rearing and adoption of short-duration varieties.	- Social Transformation - Behavioural shift
5	Rajasthan (India)	Uber for tractors is being used by smallholder farmers using digital technology to gain access to agricultural mechanisation. The technological transformation reduces transaction costs for the tractor service providers and helps farmer users with supply-side issues of agriculture mechanisation.	- Technological Transformation - Economic Transformation
6	Koraput District (India)	Contract farming in the Koraput district of India, where twin forces of the corporatisation of agriculture for economic benefits and the rise of religious nationalism have resulted in women’s agency in agricultural practices. Women who had control over-cultivation of millets and pulses in Dongar lands have now converted to contract farming of eucalyptus by their male counterparts. Further, farmers who take up contract farming have seen economic benefits, while farmers who have not taken up contract farming have suffered.	- Economic Transformation - Social Transformation (negative) - Behavioural Change
7	Telangana State (India)	Use of Climate Information Centre Concept (CLIC), which provides local meteorological data collection, reporting and formation of ‘farmers climate clubs’. Building on CLIC to produce an ICT platform for CLIC members to help farmers with information on timely agricultural inputs such as pests, weather etc. Cost benefits of technological adoption in the US $ 4–64 per hectare/year	- Technological Transformation - Economic Transformation
8	Nawada village (India)	Initiative to provide assured irrigation as an adaptation from the vulnerability of rainfed agriculture due to climate change. The government installed tube wells under a national climate resilience program providing water resources for year-round irrigation. Yield and cost savings for farmers was significant due to the adaptation.	- Governance and Policy Transformation - Economic Transformation - Behavioural shift - Social Transformation

Source: Author’s compilation.

Data availability statement

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary materials.