Enhancing food security through keyhole gardening in Lesotho

Figures & data

Table 1. Survey sample by districts, treatment status and eligibility.

	eligible				ineligible
Districts	Comparison	CGP	CGP+SPRING	Total	Comparison	CGP	CGP+SPRING	Total
Maseru	272	22	164	458	40	13	59	112
Butha-Buthe	1	66	123	190	0	34	60	94
Leribe	81	61	154	296	16	18	62	96
Berea	67	230	0	297	10	48	0	58
Mafeteng	130	80	0	210	20	61	0	81
Mohale’s Hoek	99	0	0	99	23	0	0	23
Total	650	459	441	1550	109	174	181	464

Source: CGP-SPRING impact evaluation survey by Parce et al. (2021).

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for determinants of KHGs’ adoption, food security and causal effect of KHG on food security.

Table 2. Demographic characteristics of the sampled population.

Variables	Description	Full sample	Adopters	Non-adopters	difference
Outcome variables
Food secure	Food secure =1, otherwise 0	0.278	0.280	0.274	0.007
Moderate food insecure	Moderate food insecure = 1, otherwise 0	0.263	0.289	0.192	0.098***
Severe food insecure	Severe food insecure = 1, otherwise 0	0.458	0.429	0.535	0.105***
Independent variables
Gender of household head	Male = 1, otherwise 0	0.488	0.478	0.515	0.036
Marital Status	Married = 1, otherwise 0	0.272	0.27	0.275	0.005
Educational Status	Attain formal education = 1, otherwise 0	0.876	0.845	0.888	0.043
Farm Size	Farm size in hectares (ha)	0.343	0.388	0.224	0.164
Dependency ratio	Proportion of households members dependent of household head	0.405	0.401	0.414	0.013
Number of livestock	Count	2.927	3.215	2.159	1.057
Engagement in non-farm activities	Yes = 1, otherwise 0	0.064	0.076	0.033	0.044
Owned mobile phone	Yes = 1, otherwise 0	0.825	0.861	0.733	0.129
Amount of remittances	Money received from relatives in abroad in Maloti	1554.949	1713.958	1129.569	584.389***
Connected to national grid	Yes = 1, otherwise 0	0.261	0.271	0.232	0.039
Aware of home garden program	Yes =1, otherwise 0	0.367	0.471	0.090	0.379
Attendance of demonstration farms	Yes = 1, otherwise 0	0.164	0.214	0.033	0.181
Maseru	Resides in Maseru = 1, otherwise 0	0.283
Butha -Buthe	Resides in Butha-Buthe =1, otherwise 0	0.141
Leribe	Resides in Leribe = 1, otherwise 0	0.195
Berea	Resides in Berea = 1, otherwise 0	0.176
Mafeteng	Resides in Mafeteng =1, otherwise 0	0.144
Mohale’s Hoek	Resides in Mohale’s Hoek = 1 otherwise 0	0.061
Number of observations	Respondents that participated in the survey	2,014	1466	548

***, ** and * indicate significant levels at 1, 5 and 10% levels.

Table 3. Determinants of keyhole garden’s adoption in Lesotho.

Variables	Coefficient	Std. Err	Marginal effects
Gender	−0.0992	0.0640	−0.0308(0.0198)
Marital status	0.0033	0.0238	0.0010(0.0074)
Educational attainment	0.1989**	0.0956	0.0648(0.0326)**
Farm size	0.2488***	0.0548	0.0772(0.0169)***
Proportion of active labour	−0.0300	0.0852	−0.0093(0.0265)
Number of livestock owned	0.0125**	0.0061	0.0039(0.0019)**
Engagement of non-farm business	0.4820***	0.1476	0.1258(0.0311)***
Owned mobile phone	0.3717***	0.0803	0.1243(0.0286)***
Remittances	0.0004	0.0001	0.0001(0.0000)
Connected to national grid	−0.0737	0.0771	−0.0226(0.0233)
Awareness of CGP-SPRING project	1.0667***	0.1418	0.2419(0.0204)***
Attendance of demonstration field	−0.2017	0.2668	−0.0664(0.0928)
Maseru	0.2226	0.1418	0.0666(0.0408)
Butha-Buthe	0.4614***	0.1575	0.1242(0.0365)***
Leribe	0.1846	0.1498	0.0549(0.0426)
Berea	0.0353	0.1442	0.0109(0.0439)
Mafeteng	−0.2181	0.1468	−0.0712(0.0502)
Constant	−0.2686	0.1949

***, ** and * denote significant levels at 1, 5 and 10%, respectively.

Table 4. Ordered probit model results of the determinants of household food security.

Variables	Food security	Moderate food insecurity	Severe food insecurity
	(Y = 1)	(Y=2)	(Y=3)
Gender	0.0009(0.0172)	0.0002(0.0035)	−0.0011(0.0207)
Marital status	−0.0235(0.0064)^a	−0.0048(0.0014)^a	0.0283 (0.0077)^a
Educational attainment	0.0276(0.0266)	0.0056(0.0055)	− 0.0333(0.0320)
Farm Size	0.0927(0.0132)^a	0.0189(0.0033)^a	−0.1117(0.0158)^a
Dependency ratio	−0.0564(0.0229)^b	−0.0115(0.0048)^b	0.0680(0.0278)^b
Number of livestock owned	0.0023(0.0009)^b	0.0005(0.0002)^b	−0.0027(0.0011)^b
Non-farm business activity	0.1238(0.0349)^a	0.0253(0.0076)^a	−0.1491(0.0420)^a
Ownership of mobile phone	0.1222(0.0237)^a	0.0249(0.0056)^a	−0.1471(0.0286)^a
Remittances	0.0000 (0.0000)^a	0.0000(0000)^a	−0.0000(0.0000)^a
Connected to national grid	0.0543(0.0206)	0.0111(0.0045)	−0.0653(0.0247)
Farm demonstration attendance	0.0104(0.0455)	0.0021(0.0093)	−0.0125(0.0548)
Maseru	−0.0720(0.0386)^c	−0.0147(0.0081)^c	0.0867(0.0465)^c
Butha Buthe	−0.1651(0.0415)^a	−0.0337(0.0092)^a	0.1988(0.0499)^a
Leribe	−0.0163(0.0396)	−0.0033(0.0081)	0.0196(0.0478)
Berea	−0.1196(0.0397)^a	−0.0244(0.0085)^a	0.1440(0.0478)^a
Mafeteng	−0.1086(0.0409)^a	−0.0222(0.0087)^b	0.1309(0.0493)^a
LR Chi^2	182.12
Cut 1	−0.6397 (0.1623)
Cut 2	0.1619 (0.0952)

a, b and c denote significant at 1, 5, and 10 level of significance. Standard errors are in parentheses.

Table 5. Determinants of adoption of KHG and food security based on KHG adoption status.

Variables	KHG Adoption		Food security = adopters		Food Security = non-adopters
	Coef.	Std. Err	Coef	Std. Err	Coef	Std. Err
Gender	−0.0992	0.0640	0.0397	0.0952	−0.2331	0.2179
Marital status	0.0033	0.0238	0.0364	0.0364	0.1267***	0.0860
Educational status	0.1989**	0.0956	−0.1452	−0.1357	−0.2602	0.2800
Farm Size	0.2488***	0.0548	0.1194**	0.0582	0.1982	0.1399
Active labour	−0.0300	0.0852	0.0348	0.1296	0.5549*	0.3141
Number of livestock owned	0.0125**	0.0061	−0.0011*	0.0038	−0.0219	0.0129
Non-farm business	−0.4820***	0.1476	−0.4123**	0.1785	−0.4222	0.5412
Owned phone	0.3717***	0.0803	−0.4966***	0.1428	−0.4287	0.2425
Remittances	0.0004	0.0001	−0.0000	0.0000	−0.0000	0.0000
Electricity access	−0.0737	0.0771	−0.2256*	0.1253	−0.0357	0.2918
Aware of home food garden programme	1.0667***	0.1418
Demonstration fields attendance	−0.2017	0.2668	0.4038	0.2151	0.3345	0.4273
Maseru	0.2226	0.1418	−0.1880	0.2019	−0.2825	0.3301
Butha_Buthe	0.4614***	0.1575	0.1745	0.2362	0.7268*	0.4589
Leribe	0.1846	0.1498	−0.4433**	0.2118	0.2852	0.3654
Berea	0.0353	0.1442	0.0415	0.2030	0.5085	0.3438
Mafeteng	−0.2181	0.1468	−0.0420	0.2322	0.4964	0.4471
Constant	−0.2686	0.1949
Cut_11			1.1721 0.3131
Cut_01					−0.4108	0.6129
Cut_12			0.5024 0.3323
Cut_02					−1.0454	0.5709
Corr	0.6520	0.2570
Wald Chi^2 = 74.14**
Log Likelihood = −3078 Prob > Chi^2 = 0.000

***, ** and * denote significant levels at 1, 5 and 10%, respectively.

Table 6. Average treatment effects of adoption of KHG.

Food (in)security status	Average treatment effects (ATT)
Food security	0.3060 (0.0602)***
Moderate food insecurity	−0.1102 (0.0047)***
Severe food insecurity	−0.4162 (0.0726)***

***, ** and * denote significant levels at 1, 5, and 10%, respectively.