Two Technological Traditions of Bifacial Points from the Breach Farm Site, Wales: An Interdisciplinary Analysis of Lithic Technology Integrating Experimental Replication, X-Ray Fluorescence, and Geometric Morphometry

ABSTRACT

To accurately replicate highly complex, flaked stone artifacts using the same raw materials as the original artifacts is a challenge for any present-day flintknapper. Replication of individual bifacial points from a Bronze Age burial mound in Wales led to further study of the artifacts. Integrating experimental replication, technological analysis, x-ray fluorescence, and geometric morphometry, we conducted a study of the bifacial points from the Breach Farm site. Results revealed two technological traditions; the technological details of the production sequences; possible use of a source of Greensand chert in France as raw material on both shores of the English Channel; no evidence of practical use or post-depositional damage; and the considerable expertise of the flintknapper(s). This study suggests contact across the English Channel involving people from Armorica (France) by trade or tribute, and it supports interpretations of production of these artifacts for mortuary contexts rather than functional use as arrowpoints.

KEYWORDS:

• Bronze Age
• Armorican points
• experimental archaeology
• flaked stone technology
• geometric morphometry
• pXRF
• barrows
• Greensand chert

Acknowledgements

All authors contributed directly to the writing. Moreno carried out the technological analysis and drawings, collected the XRF data, and recorded and provided support on the replication experiment. Bradley produced the replications and artifact photographs and provided support with the pXRF instrument. Okumura carried out the geometric morphometric analysis. Williams carried out the analysis of the XRF data.

We wish to acknowledge the co-operation and support of the National Museum Cardiff in Wales and specifically Steve Burrow who initiated this project and supported us logistically. In addition, the Department of Archaeology, University of Exeter, provided the portable XRF for our use. And finally, we thank the three peer reviewers and Dr. Brenda Bowser (editor-in-chief) for their insightful suggestions which improved the original manuscript.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by many grants, including: a CAPES grant (PDSE 8888.1132729/2016-01), that supported João Carlos Moreno to travel and study in the University of Exeter; a FAPESP grant (2019/08870-0), that supports João Carlos Moreno current research activities; a British Academy Newton Mobility Grant (NG06824), that supported Bruce Bradley’s research activities; aFAPESP grant (2018/23282-5) and a CNPq Productivity Scholarship (302163/2017-4), that supported Mercedes Okumura’s research activities.

Notes on contributors

João C. Moreno

João C. Moreno is a post-doctoral researcher at the Laboratory for Human Evolutionary Studies, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, Brazil. His research focus is early occupation of South America, lithic technology, experimental archaeology, and evolutionary archaeology.

Bruce Bradley

Bruce Bradley is an Emeritus Professor in the Department of Archaeology, University of Exeter, U.K. His research focus is the earliest occupation of the Americas, Upper Paleolithic of Europe, lithic technology, and experimental archaeology.

Mercedes Okumura

Mercedes Okumura is the head of the Laboratory for Human Evolutionary Studies, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, Brazil. Her research focus is evolutionary archaeology, bioarchaeology, and morphometrics. Okumura holds an Honorary Associate Scholar appointment at the University of Exeter, UK.

Thomas J. Williams

Thomas J. Williams is a research associate in the Texas Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Texas at Austin, U.S.A. His focus of research is the earliest occupation of North America and lithic technology.