Biodesalination: an emerging technology for targeted removal of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ from seawater by cyanobacteria

Figures & data

Fig. 1. Literature searches indicating the specific growth rate of different cyanobacteria, algae and mixed environmental samples. In the figure above, it is evident that cyanobacteria appeared to have overall higher growth rates, when compared to algae.

Fig. 2. Physiological adaptations of cyanobacteria to ionic stress caused by Na⁺. The mechanisms described above give a brief overview of early responses, as well as long-term adaptations to high salinity.

Fig. 3(a). Effect of intermittent light in the growth of selected cyanobacteria. Data indicated that Synechococcus PCC 7002 was growing faster than Synechocystis PCC 6803 in all light intensities tested. In contrast, Synechocystis PCC 6803 appeared to show better overall growth under high light intensities, when compared to Synechococcus PCC 7002. Error bars indicate standard deviation (n = 3).

Fig. 3(b). Effect of continuous light in the growth of selected cyanobacteria. Both Synechococcus PCC 7002 and Synechocystis PCC 6803 appeared to reach maximum growth on day 21 (week 3). Moreover, Synechococcus PCC 7002 grew best at lower light intensities, while Synechocystis PCC 6803 showed faster growth under high light intensities. It is worth noting that the maximum cell densities achieved was ten-fold lower than when grown under intermittent light. Error bars indicate standard deviation (n = 3).

Table

Strain	Temperature (°C)	Light intensity	Nutrients	Growth rate (replications/d)	Cell size (μm)	Originally isolated	References
2 Field Samples, Possibly Trichodesmium sp.	26–30	100 μE m^−2 s^−1 (12 h light/12 h dark)	SO Medium	1.25	?	North Atlantic/South Pacific	[34]
4. spiroides	24	?	?	0.9	?	?	[35]
A. variabilis	35	?	?	1.1	?	?	[36]
Agmenellum quadruplicatum PR-6	39	Dim light autotrophic	ASP 2 (+ Vitamin B12)	0	?	?	[37]
Agmenellum quadruplicatum PR-6	39	Dim light + acetate	ASP 2 (+ Vitamin B12)	0	?	?	[37]
Agmenellum quadruplicatum PR-6	39	Dim light + glucose	ASP 2 (+ Vitamin B12)	0.3	?	?	[37]
Agmenellum quadruplicatum PR-6	39	3.18 × 10^−2 μE cm^−2 s ^−1	Provasoli Medium A (Modified Urea Nitrogen source)	1.96	?	?	[38]
Agmenellum quadruplicatum PR-6	39	3.18 × 10^−2 μE cm^−2 s ^−1	Provasoli Medium A (Modified Nitrate Nitrogen source)	2.06	?	?	[38]
Agmenellum quadruplicatum PR-6	39	3.18 X 10^−2 μE cm^−2 s ^−1	Provasoli Medium A (Modified Ammonia Nitrogen source)	2.44	?	?	[38]
Agmenellum quadruplicatum PR-6	39	High Light Autotrophic	ASP 2 (+ Vitamin B12)	5.76	?	?	[37]
Agmenellum quadruplicatum PR-6	39	High Light  +  glucose	ASP 2 (+ Vitamin B12)	5.76	?	?	[37]
Anabaena	25	?	?	0.4	?	?	[39]
Anabaena flos-aquae	17	44.92 μE m ^– 2 s ^– 1	FB-1	0.925	5.04 ± 0.14	Lough Neagh	[40]
Anabaena flos-aquae	?	155 μE m^−2 s^−1	?	0.96	?	?	[41]
Anabaena oscillarioides	28	?	?	0.8	?	?	[42]
Anabaena sp. Bory de St. Vincent	20 ± 1.5	12 h light: 12 h dark	BG11—Nitrogen	1.1	?	Lake Naardermaer, Netherlands	[43]
Anabaena variabilis ATCC 29413	30	100–110 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	BG11 (pH= 5.5)	1.14	?	?	[44]
Anabaena variabilis ATCC 29413	30	100–110 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	BG11 (pH= 7.0)	1.22	?	?	[44]
Anabaena variabilis ATCC 29413	30	100–110 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	BG11 (pH= 6.0)	1.25	?	?	[44]
Anabaena variabilis ATCC 29413	30	100–110 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	BG11 (pH= 6.5)	1.27	?	?	[44]
Aphanizomenon	25	?	?	0.18	?	?	[39]
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae	?	58 μE m^−2 s^−1	?	0.87	?	?	[45]
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae	28	?	?	1.2	?	?	[46]
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae	15	64–92 μE m^−2 s^−1	FB-1	0.206	4.65 ± 0.15	Lough Neagh	[40]
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae PCC7905	20 ± 1.5	12 h light: 12 h dark	BG11—Nitrogen	0.62	?	?	[43]
Arthrospira platensis	26 ± 1	140 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	SW 3	0.18	?	Culture Collection of University of Madras, Chennai, India	[47]
Arthrospira platensis	26 ± 1	140 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	Z Medium	0.23	?	Culture Collection of University of Madras, Chennai, India	[47]
Arthrospira platensis	26 ± 1	140 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	SW 1	0.23	?	Culture Collection of University of Madras, Chennai, India	[47]
Arthrospira platensis	26 ± 1	140 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	SW 2	0.26	?	Culture Collection of University of Madras, Chennai, India	[47]
Cyanothece BH63	30–38	30–80 μEinsteins m^−2 s^−1	ASNIII + Nitrogen	1.43	?	Port Aransas, Texas	[48]
Cyanothece BH63	30–38	30–80 μEinsteins m^−2 s^−1	ASNIII—Nitrogen	2.4	?	Port Aransas, Texas	[48]
Cyanothece BH68	30–38	30–80 μEinsteins m^−2 s^−1	ASNIII + Nitrogen	0.83	?	Port Aransas, Texas	[48]
Cyanothece BH68	30–38	30–80 μEinsteins m^−2 s^−1	ASNIII—Nitrogen	1.5	?	Port Aransas, Texas	[48]
Dunaliella salina	30	50 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	BG11	0.2	427–1,028	?	[49]
Dunaliella Salina UTEX 200	30	175 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	High Carbon Medium (NO3 as nitrogen source)	0.47	801 μm^3  ± 26.3	?	[49]
Dunaliella Salina UTEX 200	30	175 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	High Carbon Medium (NH4 as nitrogen source)	0.69	944 μm^3  ± 44.1	?	[49]
Gloeothece Nageli PCC 6909	20	16 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	BG11—Nitrogen	0.48	?	?	[50]
Lyngbya majuscula JHB	29	33 μE m^−2 s^−1	BG11 + Sea Water	0.16	50–60 μm	Hector’s Bay, Jamaica	[51]
M. aeruginosa	32	?	?	0.59	?	?	[52]
M. aeruginosa	27.5	?	?	0.8	?	?	[53]
M. aeruginosa	32	?	?	0.81	?	?	[54]
Microcystis	25	?	?	0.5	?	?	[39]
Microcystis aeruginosa PCC7806	23	140 ± 5 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	BG11	0.8	?	?	[55]
Microcystis aeruginosa UV027	23	140 ± 5 μmol quanta m ^2 s^−1	BG11	0.5	?	?	[55]
Microcystis firma strain Gromow 398	29	20 W m^−2	Modified Allen and Arnon medium (sudden NaCl shock)	1.5	?	Lenigrad State University	[56]
Microcystis sp.	28.8–30.5	?	?	0.25–0.30	?	?	[57]
Mixed Environmental Sample (Cyanobacteria and algae)	?	?		1.2 ± 0.33	<3.0		[58]
Mixed Environmental Sample (Cyanobacteria and algae)	?	?		1.5 ± 0.3	<1.0		[59]
Mixed Environmental Sample (Cyanobacteria)	?	?		1.6 ± 0.3	?		[60]
Mixed Environmental Sample (Cyanobacteria)	?	?		1.7 ± 0.3	?		[61]
Mixed Environmental Sample (Cyanobacteria, Sample depth 0–65 m)	?	35% irradiance (488 nm)	?	1.3 ± 0.4	?		[60]
Mixed Environmental Sample (Cyanobacteria, Sample depth 105 m)	?	2.5% irradiance (488 nm)	?	2.3 ± 0.4	?		[60]
Mixed Environmental Sample (Cyanobacteria, Sample depth 75 m)	?	8% irradiance (488 nm)	?	1.7 ± 0.35	?		[60]
Mixed Environmental Sample (Cyanobacteria, Sample depth 90 m)	?	5% irradiance (488 nm)	?	?	?		[60]
Nodularia spumigena	20	70 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1 (16 h light/8 h dark)	BG11 (Salinity = 30PSU)	0.01	?	Gulf of Gdansk	[62]
Nodularia spumigena	20	70 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1 (16 h light/8 h dark)	BG11 (Salinity = 24PSU)	0.106	?	Gulf of Gdansk	[62]
Nodularia spumigena	20	70 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1 (16 h light/8 h dark)	BG11 (Salinity = 4PSU)	0.13	?	Gulf of Gdansk	[62]
Nodularia spumigena	20	70 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1 (16 h light/8 h dark)	BG11 (Salinity = 16PSU)	0.177	?	Gulf of Gdansk	[62]
Nodularia spumigena	20	70 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1 (16 h light/8 h dark)	BG11 (Salinity = 12PSU)	0.227	?	Gulf of Gdansk	[62]
Nodularia spumigena	20	70 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1 (16 h light/8 h dark)	BG11 (Salinity = 8PSU)	0.25	?	Gulf of Gdansk	[62]
Nostoc sp. Strain Mac	39	30–35 μW cm^−2	Cg10 (+ KNO3, + 14 mM fructose)	0.16	?	?	[63]
Nostoc sp. Strain Mac	39	30–35 μW cm^−2	Cg10 (+ KNO3, + 14 mM glucose)	0.5	?	?	[63]
Nostoc sp. Strain Mac	39	30–35 μW cm^−2	Cg10 (+ KNO3, + 14 mM glucose + 14 mM fructose)	0.5	?	?	[63]
Nostoc sp. Strain Mac	39	30–35 μW cm^−2	Cg10 (- KNO3, + 14 mM glucose)	0.9	?	?	[63]
Nostoc sp. Strain Mac	39	30–35 μW cm^−2	Cg10 (- KNO3, + 14 mM fructose)	0.95	?	?	[63]
O. agardhii	23	?	?	0.59	?	?	[64]
Oscillatoria agardhii	10	64–92 μE m^−2 s^−1	FB-1	0.138	0.6–2.1	Lough Neagh	[40]
Oscillatoria agardhii		28–64 μE m^−2 s^−1	?	1.19	?		[40]
Oscillatoria agardhii Gomont	15	60 μE m^−2 s^−1	FB-1	2.72	1.62 ± 0.02	?	[65]
Oscillatoria agardhii var. Isothrix		60 μE m^−2 s^−1	Mineral salt medium	0.54	8.53 ± 0.3	Lake Veluwemee	[66]
Oscillatoria redekei	6	64–92 μE m^−2 s^−1	FB-1	0.126	0.6–2.1	Lough Neagh	[40]
Oscillatoria redekei	15	60 μE m^−2 s^−1	FB-1	1.25	2.16 ± 0.07	?	[65]
Prochlorococcus eMED4	24	40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1 (14 h light/10 h dark)	Pro99 Natural Seawater Medium	0.7	?	Western North Atlantic	[67]
Prochlorococcus eMIT9312	24	40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1 (14 h light/10 h dark)	Pro99 Natural Seawater Medium	0.8	?	Western North Atlantic	[67]
Prochlorococcus eMIT9313	24	40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1 (14 h light/10 h dark)	Pro99 Natural Seawater Medium	0.6	?	Western North Atlantic	[67]
Prochlorococcus eNATL2A	24	40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1 (14 h light/10 h dark)	Pro99 Natural Seawater Medium	0.6	?	Western North Atlantic	[67]
Prochlorococcus MED4	22	30–40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	Low Phosphate Medium (C: 61 ± 2 fg/cell, N: 9.6 ± 0.1 fg/cell, P: 0.3 ± 0.1 fg/cell)	0.38	0.5–0.8 (diameter)	Mediterranean Sea	[68]
Prochlorococcus MED4	22	30–40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	Normal Phosphate Medium (C: 46 ± 4 fg/cell, N: 9.4 ± 0.9 fg/cell, P: 1 ± 0.2 fg/cell)	0.39	0.5–0.8 (diameter)	Mediterranean Sea	[68]
Prochlorococcus MED4	MED4	45 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	PRO2	0.63	?	Mediterranean Sea	[69]
Prochlorococcus MIT 9201	MIT9201	40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	PRO2	0.79	?	South Pacific	[69]
Prochlorococcus MIT 9202	MIT9202	59 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	PRO2	0.83	?	South Pacific	[69]
Prochlorococcus MIT 9211	MIT9211	23 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	PRO2	0.63	?	Equatorial Pacific	[69]
Prochlorococcus MIT 9302	MIT9302	56 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	PRO2	0.75	?	Sargasso Sea	[69]
Prochlorococcus MIT 9303	MIT9303	22 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	PRO2	0.51	?	Sargasso Sea	[69]
ProchlorococcusMIT 9312	MIT9312	36 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	PRO2	0.78	?	Gulf Stream	[69]
Prochlorococcus MIT 9313	MIT9313	25 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	PRO2	0.54	?	Gulf Stream	[69]
Prochlorococcus MIT9215	MIT9215	59 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	PRO2	0.77	?	Equatorial Pacific	[69]
Prochlorococcus MIT9312	22	30–40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	Low Phosphate Medium	0.5	0.5–0.8 (diameter)	?	[68]
Prochlorococcus MIT9312	22	30–40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	Normal Phosphate Medium	0.59	0.5–0.8 (diameter)	?	[68]
Prochlorococcus SS 120	SS120	27 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	PRO2	0.53	?	Sargasso Sea	[69]
Prochlorothrix hollandica	20	80 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	FPG	0.48	?	Lake Loosdrecht	[70]
Prochlorothrix hollandica	20	80 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	BG11	1.68	?	Lake Loosdrecht	[71]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	0.19	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[70]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	0.23	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[71]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	0.3	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[71]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	0.3	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[71]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	0.36	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[71]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	0.47	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[71]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	0.56	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[71]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	0.76	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[71]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	1.05	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[71]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	1.49	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[71]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	1.79	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[71]
Synechococcus (environmental isolate)	?	?	Sea Water	1.07—1.16	0.7–1.2 μm	Northwest Mediterranean Sea	[71]
Synechococcus 6803	32	40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	BG11 + 20 mM HEPES—NaOH (pH=7.5)	0.4	?	?	[72]
Synechococcus 6803	30	20–30 μE m^−2 s^−1 (6 h light/18 h dark)	BG11	Doubling time = 130 ± 6 H	?	?	[73]
Synechococcus 6803	30	20–30 μE m^−2 s^−1 (24 h light/0 h dark)	BG11	Doubling time = 15 ± 1 H	?	?	[73]
Synechococcus 6803	30	20–30 μE m^−2 s^−1 (12 h light/12 h dark)	BG11	Doubling time = 42 ± 2 H	?	?	[73]
Synechococcus 6803	30	20–30 μE m^−2 s^−1 (19 h light/15 h dark)	BG11	Doubling time = 48 ± 3 H	?	?	[73]
Synechococcus 6803 (Histidine 8 Knock Out)	30	20–30 μE m^−2 s^−1 (6 h light/18 h dark)	BG11	Doubling time = 130 ± 5 H	?	?	[73]
Synechococcus 6803 (Histidine 8 Knock Out)	30	20–30 μE m^−2 s^−1 (24 h light/0 h dark)	BG11	Doubling time = 15 ± 2 H	?	?	[73]
Synechococcus 6803 (Histidine 8 Knock Out)	30	20–30 μE m^−2 s^−1 (19 h light/15 h dark)	BG11	Doubling time = 48 ± 2 H	?	?	[73]
Synechococcus 6803 (Histidine 8 Knock Out)	30	20–30 μE m^−2 s^−1 (12 h light/12 h dark)	BG11	Doulbing time = 44 ± 3 H	?	?	[73]
Synechococcus sp.	11–26	Natural Sunlight (May–August)	Environmental samples (field research)	0.87–1.5	?	Mediterranean Sea	[74]
Synechococcus WH 8107	25	55 μE m^−2 s^−1 (14 h light/10 h dark)	f2 minus silica, plus vitamin B12	0.7	?	Sargasso Sea/Continental Samples	[75]
Synechococcus WH 8108	25	55 μE m^−2 s^−1 (14 h light/10 h dark)	f2 minus silica, plus vitamin B12	0.76	?	Sargasso Sea/Continental Samples	[75]
Synechococcus WH7803	25	55 μE m^−2 s^−1 (14 h light/10 h dark)	f2 minus silica, plus vitamin B12	0.9	?	Sargasso Sea/Continental Samples	[75]
Synechococcus WH8012	22	30–40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	Low Phosphate Medium (C: 132 ± 6 fg/cell, N: 21 ± 2 fg/cell, P: 0.5 ± 0.2 fg/cell)	0.48	0.6–2.1 (diameter)	Sargasso Sea	[68]
Synechococcus WH8012	22	30–40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	Normal Phosphate Medium (C: 92 ± 13 fg/cell, N: 20 ± 3 fg/cell, P: 1.8 ± 0.1 fg/cell)	0.58	0.6–2.1 (diameter)	Sargasso Sea	[68]
Synechococcus WH8012	25	55 μE m^−2 s^−1 (14 h light/10 h dark)	f2 minus silica, plus vitamin B12	1.02	?	Sargasso Sea/Continental Samples	[75]
Synechococcus WH8101	25	240 μmol m^−2 s^−1	SN	?	?	?	[76]
Synechococcus WH8103	22	30–40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	Low Phosphate Medium (C: 244 ± 21 fg/cell, N: 40 ± 4 fg/cell, P: 0.8 ± 0.01 fg/cell)	0.35	0.6–2.1 (diameter)	Sargasso Sea	[68]
Synechococcus WH8103	22	30–40 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1	Normal Phosphate Medium (C: 213 ± 7 fg/cell, N: 50 ± 2 fg/cell, P: 3.3 ± 0.5 fg/cell)	0.45	0.6–2.1 (diameter)	Sargasso Sea	[68]
Synechocystis PCC 6803	29	20 W m^−2	Modified Allen and Arnon medium (gradual NaCl shock)	1.4–2.6	?	Pasteur Culture Collection	[56]
Synechocystis PCC 6803	29	20 W m^−2	Modified Allen and Arnon medium (sudden NaCl shock)	1.6–2.4	?	Pasteur Culture Collection	[56]
Trichodesmium IMS101	27	100 μmol quanta m^−2 s^−1 (12 h light/12 h dark)	YBC II Medium	0.25	?	?	[77]
Trichodesmium thiebautii	25	55–65 microeinsteins m^−2 s^−1 (14 h light/10 h dark)	f/2 Medium	0.23	50–70 (diameter)	Atlantic Ocean	[78]
Unknown cyanobacterial isolate (Atlantic)	29	100 μE m^−2 s ^−1	SO Medium	1.25	2.5 μm	North Atlantic	[34]
Unknown cyanobacterial isolate (Pacific)	29	100 μE m^−2 s^−1	SO Medium	0.5	7 μm	North Pacific	[34]
Unknown cyanobacterial isolate (Pacific)	29	100 μE m^−2 s ^−1	SO Medium	1.01	2.5 μm	North Pacific	[34]

Table

Sample ID	Peak area	Average peak area	SD	% RSD.	Calculated [Na^+]
1 mM NaCl	0.44	0.46	0.03	5.54	1.02
1 mM NaCl b	0.45
1 mM NaCl c	0.49
2.5 mM NaCl	1.71	1.63	0.07	4.17	1.42
2.5 mM NaCl	1.60
2.5 mM NaCl	1.59
5 mM NaCl	6.57	6.54	0.34	5.16	3.09
5 mM NaCl b	6.18
5 mM NaCl c	6.86
25 mM NaCl	67.38	67.37	0.10	0.14	23.78
25 mM NaCl b	67.26
25 mM NaCl c	67.46
50 mM NaCl	148.66	147.66	0.87	0.59	51.09
50 mM NaCl b	147.09
50 mM NaCl c	147.23
100 mM NaCl	302.00	300.51	2.41	0.80	103.07
100 mM NaCl b	297.73
100 mM NaCl c	301.80
150 mM NaCl	433.35	431.69	2.90	0.67	147.69
150 mM NaCl b	428.34
150 mM NaCl c	433.40

Table 1 Divisions per day as calculated by flow cytometry. The table below demonstrates growth rate (per day) for Synechococcus PCC 7002 and Synechocystis PCC 6803, under different illuminations. Red indicates highest growth observed for each organism over 3 weeks of culture. Green indicates lowest growth for each organism per period.

Fig. 4. HPLC detection standard curve for Na⁺ and Cl⁻. The limits of quantification for both equations were limited between 10 and 100 mM. Error bars indicate standard deviation (n = 3).

Fig. 5. XPS analysis of Synechocystis PCC 6803 and Synechococcus PCC 7002. Values denote the distribution of macromolecules on the cell surface in the analysed sample volume. Error bars are standard deviation values.

Fig. 6. XDLVO analysis. Aggregation energies as a function of separation distance for (A) Synechocystis PCC 6803 and (B) Synechococcus PCC 7002. G—interaction energy, GLW—interaction energy due to Lifschitz–van der Waals component, GEL—interaction energy due to electrostatic component, GAB—interaction energy due to acid–base component, GTOT—total interaction energy. Insets show the formation of the predicted secondary minimum at which reversible cell aggregation might occur.

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