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Original Articles

How to face a sanitarian emergency. French ophthalmolgists and the Great War

Pages 19-34 | Received 28 Dec 2016, Accepted 10 May 2018, Published online: 08 Jun 2018
 

Abstract

Among the health emergency of World War I, the one relating to the visual organs injuries is one of the most serious. The use of weapons of new type (grenades, shells, shrapnel) that produce chips that are projected on faces, brings the number of soldiers eye-injured to an already impressive quantity at the end of the first year of conflict. This emergency is completely unexpected and it is particularly serious because this kind of trauma was extremely disabling. This situation cause a reaction by French ophthalmologists who start working to improve the organization of assistance, to administer effective treatments and surgery, and even on some issues beyond the medical field (legislation, assistance for war blinds). This article presents the main issues that French ophthalmologists have had to confront with during the Great War and, through this, to question the impact of the First World War on the development of ophthalmology as a medical specialty.

Notes

1. Statistics of the Crimean War (1853–1856), of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) and of the Balkan Wars (1912 and 1913), Chenu, Jean-Claude. ‘Statistique médico-chirurgicale de l’armée.’ in Albert, François et al., Science et dévouement, le Service de santé, la Croix-Rouge, les œuvres de solidarité de guerre et d'après-guerre, Paris, A. Quillet, 1918.

2. Even if, according to statistics, American forces, who entered the war after 1917 and thus avoided most trench warfare, sustained proportionately fewer head injuries than French or British forces, data from individual campaigns indicates that in all trench warfare the incidence of head and neck wounds was more frequent than in battle theatres where trench warfare did not occur. See J.E. Dobson, M.J. Newell and J.P. Shepherd, ‘Trends in Maxillofacial Injuries in War-Time (1914–1986), British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 1989; 27, 441–450.

3. Enucleation is a type of eye surgery consisting of the removal of the eye globe. It is performed in cases of severe eye trauma or ocular infections.

4. At the end of the first year of the war, eye injuries represented 4% of the total number of injuries and four times the expected number. This proportion rose to 6% at the end of the conflict. See Albert, François et al.

5. Albert, François et al., Science et dévouement, cit., p. 131 et seq.

6. Morax, Victor. ‘Conseils pour le traitement d’urgence des plaies de guerre intéressant les yeux.’ La Presse médicale (1914): 599–600.

7. George Weisz, Divide and Conquer: a Comparative History of Medical Specialization, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006

8. Egyptian ophthalmia was the name given to trachoma or purulent conjunctivitis, an eye infection highly common in North African countries. Many British and French soldiers developed this infection during Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801). See Carpenter, Mary Wilson. ‘A Cultural History of Ophthalmology in Nineteenth-Century Britain.’ BRANCH: Britain, Representation and Nineteenth-Century History. Ed. Dino Franco Felluga. Extension of Romanticism and Victorianism on the Net (2016).

9. Truc, Hermentaire. ‘Origine de l’enseignement officiel de l’ophtalmologie dans les Facultés et les écoles de médecine en France.’, Archives d’ophtalmologie, 45, (1928): 417–424.

10. Morax, Victor. ‘Conseils pour le traitement d’urgence des plaies de guerre intéressant les yeux.’, cit., 217 et seq.

11. Iridocyclitis is a severe inflammation of the iris and ciliary body. It can easily lead to the lost of the visual function of the concerned eye and provoke brain infections.

12. Doizy, Henri. ‘L’œuvre des commissions’ in Science et dévouement, cit., p. 93–99.

13. Bailliart, Jean-Paul. ‘La Société ophtalmologique de Paris et la guerre de 1914–1918’, in Faure, Henri. L’ophtalmologie des origines à nos jours, Annonay: Laboratoires H. Faure, vol. 7, 1992, p. 147–150.

14. ’[…] Many war wounded […] being directed to various general surgery services; […] the heads of these services have often appealed to many of us to treat eye injuries. We have quickly recognized the difficulty, starting from the disadvantage for the wounded, to reach hospitals that generally are far from each other, and that furthermore, aren’t provided with special instrumentation and hospital workers having skills for the care of the lesions of the visual apparatus. Under these conditions, we come to submit to your appreciation the proposition to lead eye-injured persons on eye hospitals [the Quinze-Vingt and Rothschild Ophthalmological Foundation] or those who actually dispose of an Ophthalmology Service [l’Hôtel-Dieu, Lariboisière et Laënnec]’. ‘Rapport sur les travaux et l’état de la Société d’ophtalmologie de Paris pendant la guerre.’ Bulletin de la Société d'ophtalmologie de Paris (1917): 217–233.

15. Morax, Victor and Moreau, François. ‘Etiologie des blessures oculaires par projectiles de guerre.’ Annales d’oculistique (1916): 321–32.

16. Sympathetic ophthalmia is an infection that affects both eyes following the trauma of one eye.

17. Weeckers, Louis. ‘Les enseignements de la guerre au sujet de l’ophtalmie sympathique.’ Annales d’oculistique (1917): 196–210 and Morax, Victor ‘Prévention de l’ophtalmie sympathique chez les blessés de guerre.’ Bulletin de la Société d’ophtalmologie de Paris (1918): 116–18.

18. ‘We must not lose sight of the importance of a satisfactory ocular prosthesis. Not only it will allow the enucleate to find his usual physiognomy, but it will prevent the obvious display of his mutilation which, in many cases, could hinder his hiring or the exercise of his profession’ Cosse, Félix. ‘La prothèse oculaire.’ Annales d’oculistique (1916): 283–84. See also Valois, Georges. ‘Les borgnes de guerre.’ Ibid: 519–29.

19. Rochon-Duvigneaud, André. ‘Rapport adressé à M. le Ministre de la Guerre concernant les réformes à apporter aux règlements militaires sur l'aptitude visuelle au service armé, et les mesures complémentaires à prendre pour l'application de ces réformes.’ Bulletin de la Société d'ophtalmologie de Paris (1916): 52–64.

20. This is what denounces Dr. Bonnefon in October 1917 speaking at the Société française d’ophtalmologie: ‘Au début de la guerre, la correction des vices de réfraction est pratiquement inexistante dans l’Armée Française. Aujourd’hui, la correction des vices de réfraction est généralement pratiquée dans l’Armée, mais avec des imperfections et des lacunes telles qu’à notre indigence du début n’a succédé qu’une trompeuse médiocrité. […] Le contrôle de réfraction s’exercera efficacement du jour où l’on examinera systématiquement toutes les recrues au lieu d’examiner seulement ceux qui réclament pour la vue.’ , ‘Quelques notes sur la réfraction de guerre), ibid.: 231–235.

21. Lagrange, Félix. ‘De la correction de astigmatisme envisagé au point de vue du service militaire.’ Archives d’ophtalmologie (1914): 401 et seq.

22. The outcome of the Great War regarding eye mutilations has been very heavy. The conflict has claimed 29,421 visually impaired veterans, corresponding to 22,473 permanent pensions from a total of 190,953 allocated - which is by far the largest number of this kind of pensions -, and 6,948 temporary pensions among a total of 231,475 allocated, which is instead one of the lowest number (see Toubert, Jean. Etude statistique des pertes subies par les Français pendant la guerre de 19141918, Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle, 1920 and Berthillon, Jacques. Statistique médicale. Données de statistique relatives à la guerre 19141918, Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1922).

23. ‘La guerre actuelle ramène violemment notre attention sur l’éducation de ces malheureux adultes qui sont brusquement plongés dans la cécité. Que faire de ces gens-là?’ Monprofit, Jacques-Ambroise. ‘L'éducation des aveugles par blessures de guerre.’ Bulletin de l'Académie nationale de médecine (1915): 649 et seq.

24. ‘Discussion de l'organisation d'une séance consacrée aux aveugles de la guerre.’ Bulletin de la Société d'ophtalmologie de Paris, (1916): 226–228.

25. ‘I am clearly against the idea of ​​society taking care of blind veterans from a social point of view. This is a purely philanthropic question and for which we oculists have no special light’. ibid: 226.

26. ‘The greatest advantage for blind soldiers is that oculists will take care of their rehabilitation … Besides blind men, there are half-visioners, blindness candidates, who will greatly benefit from the practical and moral advice of the doctor whose care they have already received’ Ibid: 227.

27. The session is held on the 7th May 1917 in the presence of Justin Godard. On this occasion, Dr. Felix Cosse reads a report entitled ‘Les aveugles de la guerre. Leur rééducation, leur avenir.’ ibid. (1917): 49–112.

28. Among others, Truc, Hermentaire. Soldats aveugles, aveugles de guerre, Montpellier: Imprimerie générale du Midi, 1916, Emard, Paul. Dans la nuit laborieuse. Essai sur la rééducation des soldats aveugles, Paris: Librairie J. Victorion, 1917, Vigne d’Octon, Pierre. La grande pitié des aveugles de guerre, Marseille: Ed. du cri des mutilés, 1920.

29. Art. 12: ‘Les blessures donnent droit à la pension de retraite lorsqu’elles sont graves et incurables, et qu’elles proviennent d’événements de guerre ou accidents éprouvés dans un service commandé. Les infirmités donnent le même droit lorsqu’elles sont graves et incurables et qu’elles sont reconnues provenir des fatigues ou dangers du service militaire.’, Duvergier, Jean-Baptiste. Collection complète des lois, décrets, ordonnances, règlements, et avis du Conseil d'Etat, Paris: Sirey, 1824–1949, t. 31, p. 276.

30. Art. 13: ‘Les blessures ou infirmités provenant des causes énoncées dans l’article précédent ouvrent un droit immédiat à la pension si elles ont occasionné la cécité, amputation ou la perte absolue de l’usage d’un ou plusieurs membres .’, Ibid.

31. Lagrange, Félix. ‘De l’appréciation des indemnités militaires concernant l’appareil de la vision.’ Archives d’ophtalmologie (1916): 65 et seq.

32. Coutela, Charles. ‘Des incapacités permanentes d’origine oculaire et de leur indemnisation au point de vue militaire.’ Archives d’ophtalmologie (1916): 17–32 and Boudier, François. ‘Rapport sur la cécité pratique et le degré d’acuité visuelle qui la determine.’ Archives d’ophtalmologie (1918): 294–304.

33. In 1919, by initiative of the Société d’ophtalmologie de Paris, is also created a commission to review the ophthalmic devices for clinical practice and teaching in hospitals and faculties (Polack, André. ‘Rapport de la Commission pour la fabrication en France des instruments d'optique.’ Bulletin de la Société d’ophtalmologie de Paris (1919): 20–22 and 53–56).

34. Among others, a refresher course is set in 1921 in the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, led by Professors Lapersonne, Terrien, Guilleminot, and Dr. Hautan (O.R.L.); another refresher courses, held by Professors Lagrange, Cabannes, Réchou and Teulières opens the same year at the University of Bordeaux.

35. In the interwar period, the number of affiliated ophtalmologists in specialty hospitals increases by one third compared to years before the war (Guide Rosenwald. Annuaire du corps médical, Paris: Ed. Guide Rosenwald, 1913 and 1924).

36. Vincent Viet, La santé en guerre, Paris: Presses de Sciences-Po, 2015.

37. George Weisz, Divide and Conquer, cit.

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