Failure mechanisms in flexible electronics

Figures & data

Figure 1. Overview of failure of flexible electronic devices from perspective of failure mode, characterization methods, fabrication process and operating environment. Strength failure: Adapted with permission. Copyright 2010, Elsevier BV [40]. Interfacial failure: Adapted with permission. Copyright 2014, Elsevier BV [41]. Fatigue failure: Adapted with permission. Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH Verlag [42]. Electrical failure: Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2022, American chemical Society [43]. Bending strength test: Adapted with permission. Copyright 2018, Elsevier BV [44]. Peel-off test. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2018, Elsevier BV [44]. Laser-induced interfacial spallation. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2020, American chemical Society [45]. Bending fatigue test. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2013, Elsevier BV [46]. Tensile fatigue test. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2022, Nature Publishing group [47]. Electromigration test. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2019, Springer Verlag [48].

Figure 2. Schematic illustration of representative fabrication process for flexible electronic devices. (a) Photolithography process. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2016, Elsevier BV [49]. (b) roll-to-roll printing. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2018, American chemical Society [50]. (c) deterministic assembly. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH Verlag [51]. (d) inkjet printing process. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2018, American chemical Society [52]. (e) mechanically guided 3D assembly of a resistive vibration sensor. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH Verlag [42]. (f) encapsulation of a flexible microfluidic electronic system. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2014, American Association for the Advancement of Science [53].

Figure 3. Operating environments of flexible electronic devices and their influencing factors. (a) Epidermal electronics. 1) flexible sensor arrays that can be used for pressure monitoring on human surfaces. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2016, Nature Publishing group [60]. 2) 3D-printed soft neural probe with nine channels by the conducting polymer ink and the PDMS ink. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2020, Nature Publishing group [61]. 3) Fractal device structure of the EEG measurement system, where the left image represents the device cascade on the auricle and mastoid, and the right image represents the amplified interconnections. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2015, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [62]. (b) implantable devices. 1) wireless biodegradable sensor wrapped around the femoral artery and secured with sutures. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2019, Nature Publishing group [18]. 2) Implanted pressure sensor in front of the eye model. 3) wireless implanted pressure sensor with an external coil in front of the eye model. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2008, IEEE [63]. (c) textile-based devices. 1) Solid-state textile-based micro-supercapacitors. 2) the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of a solid-state textile- based micro-supercapacitors. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH Verlag [19]. 3) textile-based pressure sensor. 4) LEDs lit by a DC source through knotted textile conductive circuits. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH Verlag [64]. (d) flexible electronic devices in engineering applications. 1) flexible skin for Boundary layer state measurement and flight Attitude Identification on unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2023, IOP Publishing [13]. 2) schematic diagram of the UAV equipped with smart sensing skin for sensing wind pressure. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2020, Springer Verlag [65].

Figure 4. Strength failure mechanisms. (a) illustration of the three stages of brittle film fragmentation under uniaxial loading; the insets show the progression of cracks of a 20 nm thick SiOx coating on a 12 μm thick PET substrate. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2002, Elsevier BV [109]. (b) Demonstration of the failure of a flexible accelerometer upon impact. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2014, Elsevier BV [113]. (c) analytical model of stretchable electronic devices with viscoelastic packages and soft substrates subjected to impact loads on the surface of human skin. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2016, ASME [114]. (d) flexible microfluidic electronic systems under stretch and twist configurations. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2014, American Association for the Advancement of Science [53]. (e) left, schematic illustration of a flexible sensor with a non-bonded interface, exhibiting a notable mechanical mismatch between the layers. Right, SEM image of the sensor in its bent state, highlighting stable bonding between the microcones and the dielectric layers. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2022, Nature Publishing group [115]. (f) left, SEM image of the cross-section of an organic–inorganic multilayer permeation barrier. Right, the evolution of defects: beginning as pin-holes, escalating to channel cracks, and culminating in the delamination of the oxide-organic interface. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2010, Elsevier BV [116].

Table 1. Characterization methods of strength failure.

Failure modes	Test procedures	Measuring Instruments	Advantage	Disadvantage
Tensile-induced damage	Fragmentation testing (Uniaxial tensile testing)	OM, AFM, SEM	In-situ observation techniques integration possible.	Only qualitative data on sample’s surface condition.
Bending-induced damage	Rod bending test	Digital multimeter	Simple, versatile procedure for all flexible thin film devices.	Direct rod contact allows only tensile strain; manual handling may cause damage and strain inconsistency.
	Bending test dependent on electrical signals	Strain-sensitive functional layers; strain sensors	Real-time stress distribution visualization during deformation.	Potential significant deviation in measured strains due to various factors.
	Bending test independent of electrical signals	CCD camera, surface labeled grating method, photoelasticity, Moiré patterns, X-ray diffraction	Independent of electrical signals, preserving sample’s mechanical properties.	Only surface strain measurable, necessitating sample surface modifications.
Impact-induced damage	Drop hammer impact test	Impedance analyzer	Straightforward handling.	Integrated hammer-base setup may cause additional vibrations and impact.
	Ball drop test	Impedance analyzer	Straightforward handling.	Falling ball may cause irregular secondary impacts.

Figure 5. Characterization methods for strength failure. (a) SEM images of Mo films of varying thickness - (I) 500 nm, (II) 250 nm, (III) 70 nm, and (Ⅳ) 40 nm - on PI substrates after the application of a 12% strain. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2017, Elsevier BV [130]. (b) the falling ball test, employed to evaluate the reliability of pressure stress concentrations in flexible displays. Left, a fully supported sample backed by a solid steel block. Right, a partially supported sample propped on two rollers. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2008, IEEE [176]. (c) static bending test of the CIF assembly, utilizing bending rods of varied radii. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2016, IEEE [177]. (d) three-point static bending test. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2016, IEEE [177]. (e) the lab-made bending test machine and outer/inner bending test experiments. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2014, Elsevier BV [178]. (f) optical device for strain measurement on the surface of a curved film. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH Verlag [179].

Figure 6. Interfacial failure mechanisms alongside their characterization methods. (a) in situ SEM images capturing the progressive sliding at the interface of a horseshoe-shaped copper interconnect deposited on PDMS, stretched sequentially to 30%, 50%, and 100%. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2011, IOP Publishing [209]. (b) delamination between PI layers of prototype stretchable interconnect. (1) SEM image of a bonded sample where PI has been printed once on the top and bottom layers of encapsulated silver, following cooling from curing temperature to ambient temperature. (2) SEM image of a delaminated sample with PI printed three times on the top and bottom layers of encapsulated silver, following cooling from curing temperature to ambient temperature. (3) optical image of a printed interconnect, showcasing variable silver width and PI thickness after cooling from curing temperature to room temperature. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2021, Elsevier BV [210]. (c) the 3M tape adhesion test on the Cu/PET interface, following plasma treatments for durations of 0 min (left) and 7 min (Right). Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2017, Elsevier BV [44]. (d) Scotch tape adhesion test for an al feature on a magazine paper substrate. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2012, American chemical Society [211]. (e) a peel test device integrated with a camera for examining the local geometry of the delamination front. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2010, IOP Publishing [209]. (f) schematic illustration of T-peel test on Cu/PET flexible substrate. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2017, Elsevier BV [44]. (g) schematic illustration of the laser-induced interplanar sputtering (LIIS) process, employed to facilitate the delamination of PI film from its substrate. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2020, American chemical Society [45].

Table 2. Characterization methods of interfacial failure.

Failure modes	Test procedures	Measuring Instruments	Advantage	Disadvantage
Interfacial slipping	Bending test	SEM	Integration with in-situ observation techniques.	Provide only qualitative sample surface data.
Interfacial delamination	Fragmentation testing	OM, AFM, SEM, etc.	Real-time stress distribution capture during deformation.	Strains can show significant deviations due to factors like neutral axis movement or effects of flexible strain sensors.
	Peel-off test	SEM	Direct calculation of peeling force.	Tear risk in brittle layer due to high stress.
	Tape test	Tape	Suitable for unfixable brittle materials.	Only qualitatively assess interface adhesion performance, determining only if the test interface’s adhesion force is less than the tape’s adhesion force.
	Laser-induced heating technique	SEM, XPS	Usable for large area testing in production.	Inapplicable for interfaces between two materials with similar thermal expansion coefficients.

Figure 7. Fatigue failure mechanisms. (a) resistance changes of serpentine interconnects under cyclic loading with different tensile strains. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH Verlag [264]. (b) resistance change of flexible NiCr-based strain gauges under cyclic bending deformation. (1) resistance response illustrates an upward shift in the baseline correlating with increased peak resistance; (2) SEM images of cracks in an unconstrained position; (3) schematic illustration for the evolution of cracks, starting from initial unconstrained state, proceeding through opening during bending, and culminating in a state of partial closure after stress relief. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2022, Elsevier BV [265].

Table 3. Characterization methods of fatigue failure.

Failure modes	Test procedures	Measuring Instruments	Advantage	Disadvantage
Fatigue failure	Uniaxial/biaxial cyclic tensile testing	Semiconductor analyzer、Displacement Sensors	Applies solely tensile stress on the sample,	Requires sample pre-stretching for buckling prevention during cyclic loading.
	Free arc bending test	Battery cycler, Conductivity meter, Impedance analyzer, etc.	Maximum stress concentration at the sample’s bending point.	May induce large stresses near clamping area, and fixture movement limitations hinder large bending deformations.
	Variable radius bending test	Conductivity meter, Impedance analyzer, LCR meter, etc.	Adaptable bending shape to target bending radius, avoiding stress concentration near fixtures.	Limited test location, precludes comprehensive device performance testing in one run
	Sliding plate test	Impedance analyzer, Digital multimeter, etc.	Stable fixture-sample connection due to separation of clamped and bent parts, capable of high-frequency cyclic tests on multiple samples simultaneously.	High initial strain potentially causing relatively stiff device rupture
	Variable angle test	Impedance analyzer, Digital multimeter, etc.	Allows alternate cyclic bending deformation in two different directions on the same sample	Test instrumentation is complex and imposes constraints on the device shape.
	Cyclic rubbing test	Impedance analyzer	Simple setup, suitable for assessing the protective efficiency of encapsulation layers.	Accumulated heat during friction cycles may damage device or skew testing results.

Figure 8. Characterization methods of fatigue failure. (a)-(e).Schematic illustrations and devices of the bending test method for fatigue endurance. (a) free arc bending test. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2021, Elsevier BV [294]. (b) variable radius bending test. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2017, Nature Publishing group [141]. (c) sliding plate test. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2013, Elsevier BV [46]. (d) variable angle test for unidirectional bending. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2016, IEEE [295]. (e) variable angle test for bidirectional bending. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2011, IEEE [267]. (f) Biaxial cyclic tensile testing system. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2022, American chemical Society [296]. (g) schematic illustration of cyclic rubbing test. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2022, Nature Publishing group [115].

Figure 9. Electrical failure mechanisms and characterization methods. (a) microstructural illustrations of silver-printed interconnects pre-failure (I) and post open-circuit failure (II), along with a SEM image at the cathode (III). Adapted with permission. Copyright 2019, Springer Verlag [48]. (b) Electrothermal coupling failure mechanism of stretchable thin-film conductors: (I) SEM image of an initially planar electrode (inset) displaying random intrinsic nano-cracks on the electrode; (II) SEM image of the fracture region (inset) post failure, along with a SEM image presenting dispersed metal particles within the crack, induced by electrical discharge. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2022, American chemical Society [312]. (c) (1) TEM images of the lithiation process of spherical silicon particles: expansion and cracking of the outer layer of the particles occurs. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2012, American chemical Society [315]. (2) SEM images of nanowires in their initial and lithiated expanded states. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2015, Nature Publishing group [316]. (d) (1) schematic diagram of the experimental setup for IR measurement during electromigration tests. (2) schematic representation of a dog-bone pattern structure of Ag interconnects. (3) SEM image of the microstructure of as-sintered interconnects. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2019, Springer Verlag [48]. (e) schematic illustrations (1) and images (2) of the electrothermal coupling failure process of stretchable thin-film conductors. Adapted with permission. Copyright 2019, Springer Verlag [312].

Table 4. Characterization methods of electrical failure.

Failure modes	Test procedures	Measuring Instruments	Advantage	Disadvantage
Electromigration failure	EM test	Impedance analyzer, Digital multimeter, SEM, etc.	Accelerated testing and induced electromigration failure through simultaneous heating.	Limited to qualitative surface condition data.
Electrothermal failure	Electrothermal test	Digital multimeter, SEM, etc.	Artificial mechanical load application during testing enhances crack visibility.	Overlap of test results with electromigration failures can obscure failure root cause.
Electrochemical failure	Electrochemical measurement	Battery system, Electrochemical workstation, Potentiostat SEM, EIS, etc.	Straightforward handling.	Cannot be conducted in situ. Lacks detailed chemical information for failure mechanism analysis.

Table 5. Comparison among the four failure modes.

Failure modes	Failure mechanism	Possible areas of failure	Refs.
Strength failure	Stiffer components in flexible devices can crack or fracture under extreme mechanical loads due to material limitations, resulting in device failure or degradation.	Functional components, Interconnection circuits, Conductive Electrodes, etc.	[42,43,66,109,114,116,121,122,125,142,147,151]
Interfacial failure	Interfaces between different materials experience slipping or delamination under complex stress environments.	Adhesion regions of functional components to polymers, Interfaces between packages and devices, Conductive pins for components and circuits, etc.	[22,41,198,208,209,214–216,220–223]
Fatigue failure	Long-term cyclic mechanical or thermal loads may cause fatigue cracks in functional elements and aging of elastic polymers, resulting in decreased electrical performance or failure.	Functional components, Interconnection circuits, Conductive Electrodes, Polymer substrates, encapsulation layers, etc.	[22,46,101,264,267–272,286,287]
Electrical failure	High current densities in miniaturized flexible device interconnects can lead to mass migration and heat dissipation, resulting in short circuits, interruptions, and reduced performance. External loading may further degrade the electrochemical performance of flexible energy storage devices.	Interconnection circuits, Conductive Electrodes, Flexible battery, etc.	[48,293,311–314,323,326,327,333–335,338]

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