Estimation of LST from multi-sensor thermal remote sensing data and evaluating the influence of sensor characteristics.

Figures & data

Figure 3. Top of Atmospheric Radiance Images: (A) ETM+ (B) ASTER B₁₅ (C) TM.

Figure 4. Surface Radiance Images: (A) ETM+ (B) ASTER B₁₅ (C) TM.

Figure 1. Location Map of the Study Area (North-western part of Chenab valley J&K, India).

Table 1. Detailed information of the Data sets used.

Type of data	Date of Acquisition	Spatial resolution Band wise	Band width (µm)	Quantization levels (bits)
Landsat-TM	27 August 2000	120	10.45–12.42	8
Landsat-ETM+	4 September 2000	60	10.31–12.36	8
ASTER B11	4 September 2000	90	8.12–8.47	12
ASTER B12	4 September 2000	90	8.4–8.8	12
ASTER B13	4 September 2000	90	8.9–9.7	12
ASTER B14	4 September 2000	90	10.2–10.9	12
ASTER B15	4 September 2000	90	10.9–11.6	12

Figure 2. Schematic flowchart methodology used for LST estimation.

Table 2. Gain and Bias values used (Source: https://landsat.usgs.gov/calibration).

USGS Landsat Calibration Values
Sensor Type	Gain Value	Bias Value
Landsat TM	0.055376	1.18
Landsat ETM+	0.067087	0.07

Table 3. UCC values used (Source: Abrams and Hook 2001).

UCC Values for ASTER Image
Band11	0.006822
Band12	0.00678
Band13	0.00659
Band14	0.00569
Band15	0.00522

Table 4. Atmospheric profile values acquired from web-based atmospheric correction parameter calculator (Source: http://www.ncep.noaa.gov/).

Sensor Type	Upwelling Radiance	Downwelling Radiance	Atmospheric Transmittance	Emissivity
Landsat TM	1.31	2.14	0.81	0.97
Landsat ETM+	1.15	1.89	0.82	0.97
ASTER	1.15	1.89	0.82	0.97

Table 5. Emissivity values of different land cover features used.

In-situ emissivity values for 10–12 µm wavelength
Water	0.99
Ice	0.97
Snow	0.99
Vegetation	0.98
Barren land	0.90
Debris	0.94

Figure 5. Classified image.

Figure 6. Emissivity Map.

Table 6. Pre-calibrated constant values (Abrams and Hook 2001).

Sensor type	K1	K2
Landsat TM	607.76	1260.56
Landsat ETM+	666.09	1282.71
ASTER B11	3040.13	1735.33
ASTER B12	2482.37	1666.39
ASTER B13	1935.06	1585.42
ASTER B14	866.46	1350.06
ASTER B15	641.32	1271.22

Figure 7. Brightness temperature images: (a) ETM+ (b) ASTER B15 (c) TM.

Figure 8. ASTER 08 Image.

Figure 9. Derived LST images for ASTER B₁₅ (Keywords: (CBA) Classification-based Approach, (SBL) Stefan Boltzmann’s Law, (NEM) Normalization Emissivity Method, (RCM) Reference Channel Method.

Table 7. Histogram statistical data pertaining to derived ASTER images and the reference image.

Sensor Type	Minimum value	Maximum value	Mean value	Median	Mode value	Standard deviation
ASTERB15(CBA)	−4.4	38.7	15.3	13.9	6.1	9.6
ASTERB15 (SBL)	−4.4	38.7	15.4	14.08	6.1	9.5
ASTERB15 (NEM)	−16.5	31.07	6.02	4.1	−0.16	10.2
ASTERB15 (RCM)	−16.5	31.07	6.02	4.1	−0.1	10.2
ASTER08	−12.05	42.5	14.2	13.1	2.2	11.8

Table 8. NRMSE, RMSE and correlation values for ASTER B₁₅ (LST) images. (Keywords: (CBA) Classification Based Approach, (SBL) Stefan Boltzmann’s Law, (NEM) Normalization Emissivity Method, (RCM) Reference Channel Method.

Sensor Type	Correlation	RMNS	NRMNS	Percentage NRMNS
ASTER B15(CBA)	0.94	5.6	0.11	11.9
ASTER B15(SBL)	0.93	5.7	0.12	12
ASTER B15(NEM)	0.88	6.6	0.15	15
ASTER B15(RCM)	0.88	6.6	0.15	15

Figure 10. Derived ETM+ images for ASTER B₁₅ (Keywords: (CBA) Classification-based Approach, (SBL) Stefan Boltzmann’s Law, (NEM) Normalization Emissivity Method, (RCM) Reference Channel Method.

Table 9. Histogram statistical data pertaining to derived ETM+ images and reference image.

Sensor Type	Minimum value	Maximum value	Mean value	Median	Mode value	Standard deviation
ETM+ (CBA)	−13.1	38	11.5	10.3	1.5	10.4
ETM+ (SBL)	−19	29.9	0.8	−0.14	−10.1	11.19
ETM+ (NEM)	−18	33.5	3.3	2.07	−8	11.9
ETM+ (RCM)	−19	31.2	1.5	0.23	−9.8	11.8
ASTER08	−12.05	42.5	14.2	13.1	2.2	11.8

Table 10. NRMSE, RMSE and correlation values for ASTER B₁₅ (ETM+) images. (Keywords: (CBA) Classification Based Approach, (SBL) Stefan Boltzmann’s Law, (NEM) Normalization Emissivity Method, (RCM) Reference Channel Method.

Sensor Type	Correlation	RMNS	NRMNS	Percentage NRMNS
ETM+ (CBA)	0.91	6.3	0.16	16.8
ETM+ (SBL)	0.75	13.2	0.36	36
ETM+ (NEM)	0.82	10.2	0.27	27.3
ETM+ (RCM)	0.82	10.2	0.27	27.3

Figure 11. Derived TM images for ASTER B₁₅ (Keywords: (CBA) Classification Based Approach, (SBL) Stefan Boltzmann’s Law, (NEM) Normalization Emissivity Method, (RCM) Reference Channel Method.

Table 11. Histogram statistical data pertaining to derived ETM+ images and reference image.

Sensor Type	Minimum value	Maximum value	Mean value	Median	Mode value	Standard deviation
TM (CBA)	−15.1	31.4	6.5	4.2	−1.3	10
TM (SBL)	−26	20	−7.1	−9.5	−16.1	10.9
TM (NEM)	−25	21.07	−6.7	−9.3	−16.8	11.17
TM (RCM)	−26	21.07	−6.7	−9.3	−16.8	11.17
ASTER08	−12.05	42.5	14.2	13.1	2.2	11.8

Table 12. NRMSE, RMSE and correlation values for ASTER B₁₅ TM images. (Keywords: (CBA) Classification Based Approach, (SBL) Stefan Boltzmann’s Law, (NEM) Normalization Emissivity Method, (RCM) Reference Channel Method.

Sensor Type	Correlation	RMNS	NRMNS	Percentage NRMNS
TM (CBA)	0.83	11.7	0.31	31.1
TM (SBL)	0.60	14.8	0.40	40
TM (NEM)	0.75	12.3	0.35	35.6
TM (RCM)	0.75	12.3	0.35	35.6

Figure 12. Re-scaled ETM+ & TM.

Table 13. Statistical data for Re-scaled ETM+, TM and ASTER08.

Sensor Type	Minimum value	Maximum value	Mean value	Median	Mode value	Standard deviation	Range
ETM+	−11.93	41.4	13.3	12.2	2.2	11.6	53.3
TM	−14.8	35.6	7.8	4.8	−1.2	10	50.4
ASTER08	−12.05	42.5	14.2	13.1	2.2	11.8	54

Table 14. Estimated correlation and average deviation values for re-scaled image.

Class Type	Correlation with ETM+	Average deviation	Correlation with ASTER B15	Average deviation
Barren Land	0.85	2.4	0.61	1
Snow	0.84	0.48	0.71	4.5
Vegetation	0.97	3.7	0.96	2.6
Water	0.97	3	0.70	1.1
Debris	0.88	2	0.73	2.9
Ice	0.54	0.52	0.65	4.3

Table 15. Statistical figures for Entropy images.

Entropy image	Maximum value	Mean value	Median	Mode value	Standard deviation
ETM	3.5	2.3	2.5	2.5	0.79
ASTER B15	3.8	3.2	3.6	3.6	0.82
TM	3.5	2.5	2.8	2.8	0.85

Figure 13. Entropy images.

Figure 14. Location of line segments used for spatial profile.

Figure 15. (a): Spatial profile for line segment A for Landsat ETM+, ASTER B₁₅, Landsat TM sensor typed LST image. (b): Spatial profile for line segment B for Landsat ETM+, ASTER B₁₅, Landsat TM sensor typed LST image. (c): Spatial profile for line segment C for Landsat ETM+, ASTER B₁₅, Landsat TM sensor typed LST image. (d): Spatial profile for line segment D for Landsat ETM+, ASTER B₁₅, Landsat TM sensor typed LST image.

Figure 15. (Continued).

Table 16. Average deviation values between ETM+ and TM.

Sensor Type	Class type	Average deviation
ETM+	Barren land	3.27
	Snow	4
	Ice	3.06
TM	Debris	3.32
	Vegetation	4.33
	Water	3.2

Figure 16. Observed Points.

Table 17. Average deviation between ASTER B₁₅ and ETM+.

Sensor Type	Class type	Average deviation
ETM+	Barren land	4.7
	Snow	4.3
	Ice	5
ASTER B15	Debris	3.4
	Vegetation	2.7
	Water	3.5

Table 18. RMSE, NRMSE values of ETM+ with TM and ASTER image.

Values with	RMSE	RMSE	Percentage Error
TM	4.25	0.12	12
ASTER B15	4.47	0.13	13

Abrams, H., and S. Hook. 2001. ASTER User Handbook. CA, USA: Jet Propulsion Laboratory Pasadena.

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