Elucidating the role of diet in maintaining gut health to reduce the risk of obesity, cardiovascular and other age-related inflammatory diseases: recent challenges and future recommendations

Figures & data

Figure 1. Percentage abundance of phyla present in gut according to age groups (A) males (B) females.

Figure 2. Different types of diet.

Figure 3. Role of gut microbiota in autoimmune diseases.

Figure 4. The human gut-brain axis.

Figure 5. Metabolism of polyphenols by gut microbiota.

Table 1. Polyphenols, its natural sources and impact on microbiota.

Polyphenol	Source	Impact	Reference
Anthocyanins	Blackcurrant, Tart cherry	Increase in Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium; Decrease in Bacteroides spp., Clostridium spp.	^Citation62
Polyphenols, phenolic acids	Apple	Increase in Lactobacilli, Streptococcus sp; Decrease in lecithinase-positive Clostridium, Pseudomonas, and Enterobacteriaceae	^Citation55
Flavanols	Cocoa	Increase in Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, E. rectale-C. coccoides; Decrease in Clostridium; In low–cocoa group, increase in Clostridium, E. rectale-C. Coccoides	^Citation60
Proanthocyanins, Apigenin	Blueberry	Increase in Bifidobacteria, spp. Of Prevotella, Bacteroides spp., and C. coccoides; Decrease in the species of Enterococcus.	^Citation63
Flavonoid, Isoflavone	Almond, Orange	Increase in Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp.; Decrease in pathogen C. perfringens, C. leptum, and B. coccoides.	^Citation64
Proanthocyanidins	Cranberry	Increase in Bacteroidetes, Lachnospira and Anaerostipes.; Decrease in Clostridia, Firmicutes, and Oribacterium	^Citation65
Catechins, Quercetin	Green tea	Increase in Firmicutes, Actinobacterium. Decrease in Bacteroidetes	^Citation66
Cocoa flavanols	Dark chocolate	Increase in Lactobacillus; Decrease in Bacteroidetes	^Citation67

Figure 6. Benefits of probiotics on the overall health of an individual.

Table 2. Sources of non-dairy probiotics.

Non-dairy probiotics	Sources of Non-dairy probiotics
Fermented Veggies	sauerkraut, pickles, and kimchi
Fermented Soy Products	soy products like tempeh and miso
Kefir	Non-dairy kefir
Probiotic Supplements	capsules, tablets, and powders

Figure 7. Mechanism of action of probiotics.

Figure 8. Cardiovascular health is linked with the diet which shapes the microbiota of the gut and leads to a healthy life cycle.

Table 3. Association of gut flora with various diseases.

Disease	Gut Microbes	Findings
Cardiovascular diseases	Lactobacillus plantarum Lactobacillus rhamnosus Akkermansia muciniphila	Improved ventricular function Improved blood pressure Protect against atherosclerosis
Type 2 Diabetes	Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, Faecalibacterium, Akkermansia and Roseburia spp.	Negatively associated
	Ruminococcus, Fusobacterium	Positively associated
	Lactobacillus species	Enriched in control microbiome.

Figure 9. Symptoms of aging with gut diseases.

Figure 10. Gut health reduces the risk of various diseases.

Table 4. Summary of the association between inflammatory diseases and gut microbiota concerning diet.

Common Inflammatory Diseases	Beneficial Diet	Harmful Diet	Changes in Gut Microbial flora due to harmful diet	References
PMR	Vitamin D, fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins	Processed foods, refined sugars, fats	Increase in Prevotella, Bacteroides, Ruminococcus sp.	^Citation109 ^Citation110
SMA	Calcium, dietary fibers, probiotics	Processed foods	Increase in harmful bacteria.	^Citation115 ^Citation116
Vasculitis	Calcium, broccoli, yogurt, skimmed milk, fruits, vegetables, beta-glucan	Food additives, fried foods, non-digestible carbohydrates	Increase in bacteroides	^Citation118 ^Citation120 ^Citation121
Sarcopenia	Proteins, vit.D, omega 3 fatty acids, fruits, vegetables	Western style foods including fats and processed sugars and foods	Increase in harmful bacteria.	^Citation158 ^Citation58 ^Citation124
Cirrhosis	Polyunsaturated fats, dietary fibres, whole grains, omega-3 foods (fish, olive oil)	Saturated and monounsaturated fats, high intake of processed and red meat, sugars and refined carbohydrates	Increase in harmful gut bacteria	^Citation159 ^Citation56 ^Citation23
Cancer	Plant-based diet; fruits, vegetables, legumes, whole grains, vitamin D, omega 3 fatty acids	High intake of processed and red meat	Increase in inflammation causing bacteria	^Citation129 ^Citation130 ^Citation29,Citation131
Fibromyalgia	Low FODMAP diet, fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, whole grains	Processed foods and carbohydrates	Increase in Inflammation causing flora	^Citation160 ^Citation14; Citation132
Alzheimer’s	Mediterranean diet	Western diet	Inflammation and oxidative stress	^Citation135
Parkinson Disease	High fiber diet	Saturated fats and processed foods	Inflammation and oxidative stress	^Citation139
Lupus	Mediterranean diet	Western diet	Change in gut microbiota and inflammation	^Citation143
Arthritis	Mediterranean diet	Processed foods, sugars, saturated fats	Inflammation and oxidative stress	^Citation147
Constipation	Fiber, prebiotics	Low fiber diet, fats, sugars	Change in microbial flora of gut	^Citation154

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