A new perspective on PTSD symptoms after traumatic vs stressful life events and the role of gender

Figures & data

Table 1. Demographics and PSS-I scores of all included participants (n = 1433) and main and interaction effects for event type and gender.

	Index event: A1 event (n = 573)		Index event: non-A1 event (n = 860)
Variables	Men	Women	Men	Women	Main effect event	Main effect gender	Interaction event x gender
Gender distribution^a	n = 162; 28.3%	n = 411; 71.7%	n = 265; 30.8%	n = 595; 69.2%	-	p < .001	n.s.
Age (in years)^b	43.96 (13.16)	41.55 (12.29)	43.44 (12.20)	40.89 (12.58)	n.s.	p = .001	n.s.
Educational level (in years)	12.16 (2.89)	12.02 (3.10)	12.69 (3.38)	12.68 (3.33)	p = .002	n.s.	n.s.
Years since index event	11.16 (14.60)	12.18 (14.35)	9.24 (10.84)	8.70 (10.09)	p < .001	n.s.	n.s.
% with psychopathology^c	71.0%	82.7%	74.0%	77.6%	n.s.	n.s.	n.s.
% meeting PTSD B, C, and D criteria^d	15.4%	29.9%	31.3%	28.2%	p = .006	p < .001	p = .002
PSS-I Total score^e	10.12 (9.82)	14.24 (11.93)	13.91 (11.39)	13.41 (10.27)	p = .007	p = .005	p = .005
PSS-I score: Subscale A Intrusions^e	2.94 (3.70)	4.25 (4.12)	3.72 (3.88)	4.07 (3.73)	p = .03	p < .001	n.s.
PSS-I score: Subscale B Avoidance^e	3.96 (4.37)	5.30 (5.21)	5.77 (5.08)	5.13 (4.60)	p = .001	n.s.	p = .006
PSS-I score: Subscale C Arousal^e	3.22 (3.40)	4.68 (4.12)	4.36 (3.99)	4.23 (3.75)	n.s.	p = .005	p = .004
PSS-I score: Anxiety during event^e	5.62 (3.36)	6.67 (3.19)	5.46 (3.06)	5.80 (3.03)	p = .006	p < .001	n.s.
PSS-I score: perceived impact of event^e	8.19 (2.03)	8.83 (1.56)	8.17 (1.68)	8.45 (1.51)	p = .04	p < .001	n.s.

PSS-I = PTSD Symptom Scale – Interview version; PTSD = Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.

^aGender distribution: 0 = men; 1 = women. ^bMean age in years during the PSS-I is reported. ^cPsychopathology (depression and anxiety) during five years before administration of the PSS-I as measured with the CIDI is reported. ^dPTSD B, C and D according to the Brewin & Engelhard criteria. ^eMeans and SDs of the untransformed raw PSS-I scores are reported.

Figure 1. Mean total PSS-I scores for men and women per type of event.

Untransformed PSS-I scores are presented.

Table 2. Mean total PSS-I scores of all participants for whom the PSS-I was completed.

	n		Mean PSS-I scores^a
	men	women	men	women
A1 index events
Natural disaster (for example flood, hurricane, earthquake)	1	1	2.00	0.00
Fire or explosion	4	6	21.75	18.83
Transportation accident (for example car accident, train wreck, plane crash)	9	33	12.00	10.58
Serious accident at work, home or during recreational activity	8	9	10.25	10.33
Exposure to toxic substance (for example dangerous chemicals, radiation)	2	1	13.00	0.00
Physical assault (for example being attacked, hit or kicked)	14	41	6.11	18.68
Assault with a weapon (for example being shot and/or stabbed or threatened with a knife, gun, or bomb)	10	5	3.50	17.00
Sexual assault (rape, attempted rape, made to perform any type of sexual act through force or threat of harm)	8	58	17.50	21.28
Other unwanted or uncomfortable sexual experience	4	26	6.50	14.22
Combat or exposure to a war-zone (in the military or as a civilian)	2	2	3.00	12.50
Captivity (for example being kidnapped, abducted, held hostage, prisoner of war)	0	4	-	19.00
Life-threatening illness or injury	22	38	10.55	13.61
Severe human suffering	19	42	11.26	13.19
Sudden, violent death of someone close to you (for example homicide, suicide)	21	33	9.52	12.12
Sudden, unexpected death of someone close to you	38	111	10.42	11.29
Serious injury, harm or death caused by you	0	1	-	16.00
Non-A1 index events
Death of someone close to you	45	127	6.04	10.09
Severe physical illness (of you or someone close to you)	67	162	13.34	11.99
Relational problems	65	129	15.38	15.95
Problems at work	51	66	20.48	16.94
Miscarriage, abortion, unfulfilled desire to have children, problems during childbirth, unwanted pregnancy	2	20	12.00	11.95
Death of someone not close to you (for example client, student)	1	1	15.00	2.00
Family problems: decreased contact	2	8	11.50	7.13
Family problems: psychological problems	6	13	14.50	13.62
Family problems: rest	13	29	11.77	14.90
Family problems: divorce of parents	4	9	7.25	9.33
Non-family problems: decreased contact	0	1	-	9.00
Non-family problems: psychological problems	1	3	0.00	17.33
Non-family problems: rest	1	4	7.00	19.00
Financial problems	0	3	-	10.33
Burglary, housebreaking	1	2	32.00	22.50
Moving	0	2	-	25.00
Bullying and stalking	3	10	24.33	17.60
Being threatened or threatening of someone close to you	1	1	20.00	22.00
Emotional neglect	0	1	-	26.00
Psychological and emotional abuse	2	4	7.00	25.50
Rest
Psychological symptoms of the participant (for example burn-out, depression)	10	4	19.53	16.75

PSS-I: PTSD Symptom Scale – Interview version.

^aMeans of the original PSS-I scores are reported.