Bovine brucellosis: prevalence, risk factors, economic cost and control options with particular reference to India- a review

Figures & data

Figure 1. Risk factors for Brucella infection in animals classified in four groups.

Table 1. Factors reported to be associated with Brucella sero-positivity in the literature.

Risk factors and predictors	Significance association with brucellosis/Brucella-infection	Reference
(1) Host factors
Species	Cattle are more likely to be sero-positive than buffalo	[38]
Age of animal	Older animals are more likely to be sero-positive than calves	[29]
Sex	Female dairy animals are more likely to be sero-positive than male	[9]
Breed	Purebred animals are more likely to be sero-positive than indigenous	[41]
History of abortion	History of abortion is positively associated with sero-positivity	[36]
History of repeat breeding	History of repeat breeding is positively associated with sero-positivity	[20]
History of retention of placenta	History of retention of placenta is positively associated with sero-positivity	[15]
History of metritis/endometritis	History of metritis/endometritis is positively associated with sero-positivity	[31]
(2) Management factors
Farming system	Organized farms are positively associated with sero-positivity	[38]
Mixed herd	Cattle being housed with goat and/or sheep are more likely to be sero-positive	[34]
Herd size	Larger herds are positively associated with sero-positivity	[29]
Distance between herds/density of herds	Herds located close to one another are positively associated with sero-positivity	[35]
Breeding method	Breeding by artificial insemination is positively co-related with sero-positivity	[41]
Introduction of new animal from unknown source	Introduction of new animals from unknown sources is positively associated with sero-positivity	[15]
Clean drinking water	Lack of clean drinking water for animals are positively associated with sero-positivity	[42]
Clean and hygiene	Insufficient manure removal and dirtiness in farms positively associated with sero-positivity	[42]
Routine milk diagnosis	Herds that are not routinely tested for Brucella infection is positively co-related with sero-positivity	[41]
(3) Farmers’ factors
Age of owner	Cattle and buffalo belong to older age group owners (above 40 years) are positively associated with sero-positivity	[31]
Knowledge and awareness of farmers	Cattle and buffalo belong to farmers having knowledge and awareness about diseases particularly of brucellosis are positively correlated with sero-positivity.	[41]
(4) Agro-ecological factors
Region of origin	Sero-positivity differs in different parts of a country	[29]

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