Aristotle - Ἀριστοτέλης (ARISTOTÉLĒS, 384/3- 322/1 BCE) The revelation of tuberculosis in his zoological works

ABSTRACT

One of the most challenging issues with the sources of ancient medicine is to be able to identify the correspondence between the diseases we know today and those reported in ancient medical texts. Ancient diseases’ definitions rarely help us, and the symptoms described often correspond to more than one disease. This is especially true about tuberculosis, a disease that historians of medicine habitually associates with the Greek words phthi(n)o (φθίνω), verb, phthisis/phthoe (φθίσις/φθόη), noun, phthinodes/phthisikos (φθινώδης/φθισικός), adjective, all etymologically linked to an Indo-European root that expresses the idea of consumption in a broad sense. This article aims to analyze a group of Greek words, branchos/branchia (βράγχος/βράγχια), krauros/kraurao (κραῦρος/κραυράω), and katarreo (καταρρέω), that appear in nosological contexts very close to the infectious disease that today we call tuberculosis. Moreover, the paper aims to focus on the transmission pathways of TB being via animal-human contact and some ancient strategies to cure it. The symptoms, transmission pathways and therapeutic approach of tuberculosis belong to a homogeneous pathological picture that emerges from a set of texts that date back to the period between the fifth century BC and the second century AD.

KEYWORDS:

• Aristotle
• infectious diseases
• methodology of science
• transmission pathways
• tuberculosis

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

References

• Balme DM, (ed., tr.). Aristotle. History of animals. Cambridge MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1991: bk. VIII chs.21 and 23.
   Google Scholar
• Grmek MD. Le malattie all’alba della civiltà occidentale. Bologna: il Mulino; 1985. p. 310–312.
   Google Scholar
• Morazzoni C, De Paschale M. The history of tuberculosis: from mummies to multidrug resistance across the royal touch. Microbiologia Medica. 2016;315782:31–32.
   Google Scholar
• Schnieders S, (ed., tr.) Aristoteles. Historia animalium. Buch VIII und IX. Berlin: De Gruyter; 2019. p. 601.
   Google Scholar
• Linsday Campbell G, (ed.). The Oxford handbook of animals in classical thought and life. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2014: 601.
   Google Scholar
• Chantraine P, (ed.). Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque: histoire des mots. s. v. βράγχος. Paris: Klincksieck; 1968-1980.
   Google Scholar
• Jouanna J, (ed., tr.). Hippocrate. L’ancienne médicine. Paris: Les Belles Lettres; 1990. Ch. 19 paras. 1–2.
   Google Scholar
• Squillace G. Le malattie del rheuma nel Corpus Hippocraticum. Reumatismo. 2007;59(1):1–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gärtner F, (ed.). Galeni De locis affectis I-II. Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter; 2015. p. 154–156.
   Google Scholar
• Jouanna J, Hippocrates. Pour une archéologie de l’école de Cnide. Paris: Les Belles Lettres; 1974. p. 192–200.
   Google Scholar
• Santacroce L, Topi S, Haxhirexha K, et al. Medicine and healing in the pre-Socratic thought. A brief analysis of magic and rationalism in ancient herbal therapy. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets. 2021;21(2):282–287.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vegetti M, (ed.). Opere di Ippocrate. Torino: UTET; 1965.
   Google Scholar
• Flashar H, (ed.). Aristoteles. Problemata physica. Berlin: Akademie Verlag; 1962. p. 385.
   Google Scholar
• Ulacco A. (ed.). Malattia e alterazione del calore naturale: medicina ippocratica e fisiologia aristotelica negli hosa iatrika e in altri problemata pseudo-aristotelici. In: Centrone B, editor. Studi sui Problemata aristotelici. Pisa: BIBLIOPOLIS; 2011. p. 59–88.
   Google Scholar
• Jouanna J, Hippocrates et les Problemata d’Aristote: Essai de comparaison entre Airs, eaux, lieux, cap. 10, Aphorisme III 11, 14 et Problemata I 8-12 et 19-20, In: R RW, and Pellegrin P (editors). Hippokratische Medizin und antike Philosophie. Verhandlungen des VIII. Internationalen Hyppokrates-Kolloquiums in Kloster Banz/Staffelstein vom 23. Bis. September 1993. Olms: Hildesheim-Zürich-New York, p. 274–293.
   Google Scholar
• Grmek MD. Le malattie all’alba della civiltà occidentale. Bologna: il Mulino; 1985. p. 315.
   Google Scholar
• Potter P, (ed., tr.). Hippocrates. Epidemics 1. Cambridge Mass.-London: Harvard University Press; 2022. bk. 1, ch. 3.
   Google Scholar
• Potter P, (ed., tr). Hippocrates. Internal affections. Cambridge Mass.-London: Harvard University Press; 1988. chs. 10-12.
   Google Scholar
• Grmek MD. Le malattie all’alba della civiltà occidentale. Bologna: il Mulino; 1985. p. 315–330.
   Google Scholar
• Daniel TM, Iversen PA. Hippocrates and Tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2015;19(4):373–374.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chantraine P, ed. Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque: histoire des mots. s. v. φθίνω. Paris: Klincksieck; 1968-1980.
   Google Scholar
• Pseudo-Galeni definitiones medicae. In: Kühn G,editor. Claudii Galeni opera omnia. Hildesheim: Olms; 1821. vol. 19. p. 419.
   Google Scholar
• Galeni De symptomatum differentiis liber. In: Kühn G,editor. Claudii Galeni opera omnia. Hildesheim: Olms; 1824. vol. 7. p. 63.
   Google Scholar
• Pease AS. Some remarks on the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis in antiquity. Isis. 1940;31(2):380–393.
   Google Scholar
• Vegetti M. L’immagine del medico e lo statuto epistemologico della medicina in Galeno. In: Haase W, (ed.). Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt (ARNW). Teil II: principat. Band 37: philosophie, Wissenschaften, Technik, 2. Teilband: wissenschaften (Medizin und Biologie). Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter; 2016. p. 1672–1717.
   Google Scholar
• Schnieders S, (ed., tr). Aristoteles. Historia animalium. Buch VIII und IX. Berlin: De Gruyter; 2019: 34 (Arist. HA VIII 23).
   Google Scholar
• Di Marco V, Cinzia M, Cifani N, et al. Il suino nero dei Nebrodi quale possibile serbatoio della tubercolosi all’interno di un’area protetta (Parco dei Nebrodi): esperienze personali in sei anni di sorveglianza (2003-2008). In: Atti della Società Italiana di Patologia ed Allevamento dei Suini, XXXV Meeting Annuale, Modena, Italia, 12-13 marzo 2009: 382–390.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson NG, (ed., tr). Aelian. Historical Miscellany. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press; 1997. Vol. 5. p. 14.
   Google Scholar
• Durand J-L. Sacrifice et labour en Grèce ancienne. Paris-Rome: EFR; 1986. p. 175–176.
   Google Scholar
• Most GW, (ed. tr). Hesiod. Works and days. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press; 2018. v(erse).405.
   Google Scholar
• Ferrucci SL. “Oikos” nel diritto attico. Pubblico, privato e individuale nella democrazia ateniese classica. Dike. Rivista di storia del diritto greco ed ellenistico. 2006;9.183–210.
   Google Scholar
• Detienne M, Vernant J-P, eds. La cucina del sacrificio in terra greca. Torino: Bollati Boringhieri; 2014. pp. 36–37.
   Google Scholar
• Durand J-L. Rituale e strumentale. In: Detienne M, Vernant J-P, editors. La cucina del sacrificio in terra greca. Torino: Bollati Boringhieri; 2014. pp. 136–150.
   Google Scholar
• Lennox JG. The place of mankind in Aristotle’s Zoology. Philos Top. 1999;27(1):1–16.
   Google Scholar
• Repici L. Colori e corpi animali nella fisiologia di Aristotele. Med Secoli. 2020;32(2):405–432.
   Google Scholar
• Cockburn A. The evolution and eradication of infectious diseases. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press; 1963. p. 221–222.
   Google Scholar
• Hare R. The antiquity of diseases caused by bacteria and viruses. In: Brothwell D, Sandison AT, editors. Diseases in antiquity: a survey of the diseases, injuries and surgery of early populations. Springfield: CC Thomas; 1967. p. 115–131.
   Google Scholar
• Mayhew R, editor. tr. Aristotle. Problems 1-19. Cambridge Mass.-London: Harvard University Press. 2011. Problem 7 ch. 8.
   Google Scholar
• Nutton V. The seeds of disease: an explanation of contagion and infection from the Greeks to the Renaissance. Med Hist. 1983;27:1–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosak JK. Heroic measures. Hippocratic medicine in the making of Euripedian Tragedy. Leiden-Boston: Brill; 2004. p. 104–105.
   Google Scholar
• Isocrates. Aegineticus. In. Mandilaras BG (ed., tr.). Isocrates. Opera Omnia, I-III. München: KG Saur; 2003: vol. III no. XIX ch. 29.
   Google Scholar
• Heiberg JL, (ed.). Hippocratis. De flatibus. Leipzig et Berlin: BG Teubner; 1927. ch. 6. Ins. 8–12.
   Google Scholar
• Heiberg JL. ed. Hippocratis. De flatibus. Vol. 6. Leipzig et Berlin: BG Teubner. 1927. 20.
   Google Scholar
• Littré E. (ed., tr.) Hippocratis De morbo sacro. In: Ouvres complète d’Hippocrate. 6. Amsterdam: AM Hakkert. 1961. Vol 6, p. 364.
   Google Scholar
• Heiberg JL. (ed.) Hippocratis. De flatibus. Vol. 10. Leipzig et Berlin: BG Teubner. 1927. ch. 10 lns. 20.
   Google Scholar
• Walsh J. Galen’s treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Tuberc. 1931;24:1–41, 39–40.
   Google Scholar
• Guarducci M, editor. Inscriptiones creticae I-IV. Roma: Libreria dello Stato; 1935-1950. I 17.17.
   Google Scholar
• Melfi M. Il santuario di Asclepio a Lebena. Atene: Scuola archeologica italiana di Atene. 2007. p. 109.
   Google Scholar
• Cilione M. Il μίασμα abortivo nelle iscrizioni di Cirene e Cos. Med Secoli. 2016;28(1):19–38.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Littré E ( ed., tr.). Hippocratis Praenotiones Coacae. In: Ouvres complète d’Hippocrate. Amsterdam: AM Hakkert; 1961: Vol. 5 p. 680.
   Google Scholar
• Guarducci M ( ed.). Inscriptiones creticae I-IV. Roma: Libreria dello Stato; 1935-1950: Vol. I no. 17 p. ln. 17.
   Google Scholar
• Guarducci MEG IV. Epigrafia Greca IV. Libreria dello Stato: Roma; 1995. p. 156–158.
   Google Scholar
• Rivoli M. Sanatio di publius granius Rufus da Lebena. Axon. Iscrizioni storiche greche. 2019;3(1):191–198.
   Google Scholar

Additional information

Funding

The author(s) reported there is no funding associated with the work featured in this article.