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ABSTRACT
Domestic and international jurisprudence indicate the principles for law making in a public health emergency. These are that emergency laws should be limited, time-bounded and proportionate to the nature of the emergency. One way to give effect to these principles is to socially distance emergency legislation from ordinary legislation. This makes emergency laws separate and distinct from ordinary laws, and reduces the chances of them being used for periods and purposes beyond their initial remit. Specific structural techniques to do this are: to use sunset clauses, to use a single legislative vehicle for emergency laws, to use non-textual amendments, to avoid the standard mosaic approach to making new laws, to expressly state their temporary nature, to specifically limit their use to the emergency and to give them a title which indicates their emergency nature.
Acknowledgements
I gratefully acknowledge the invaluable comments of the anonymous peer reviewers.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 See the Covid-19 section on Verfassungsblog on matters constitutional for myriad global examples, <https://verfassungsblog.de/> accessed 15 April 2020.
2 Hansard 4 May 2020 Vol. 675 Column 455.
3 Oren Gross, ‘Emergency Powers in the Time of Coronavirus … and Beyond’ (Just Security, 8 May 2020) <https://www.justsecurity.org/70029/emergency-powers-in-the-time-of-coronaand-beyond/> accessed 17 June 2020.
4 Cicero, in his oration Pro Milone 52BCE.
5 David Dyzenhaus, ‘Schmitt v. Dicey: Are States of Emergency Inside or Outside the Legal Order?’ 27 Cardozo Law Review 36.
6 Liversidge v. Anderson [1942] AC 206.
7 R. Cormacain ‘Does law fall silent in the war against Covid-19?’ Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law 18 March 2020, available at <https://binghamcentre.biicl.org/comments/85/does-law-fall-silent-in-the-war-against-covid-19> accessed 17 June 2020.
8 S. 21 Civil Contingencies Act 2004.
9 S. 22 ibid.
10 S. 23 ibid.
11 S. 26 ibid.
12 S. 27 ibid.
13 S. 45C Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984.
14 S. 45D ibid.
15 S. 45Q ibid.
16 S. 45R ibid.
17 Schedule 19 to the Coronavirus Act 2020.
18 Public Health Act (Northern Ireland) 1967, those provisions being inserted by the Coronavirus Act 2020.
19 The four principal sets of regulations which set out the social distancing requirements are the Health Protection (Coronavirus) (Restrictions) (Scotland) Regulations 2020, the Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (England) Regulations 2020, the Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2020 and the Health Protection (Coronavirus Restrictions) (Wales) Regulations 2020.
20 Hansard 4 May 2020, Vol 675, Col 466.
21 Benet Brandreth and Lord Sandhurst, ‘Pardonable in the Heat of Crisis – Building a Solid Foundation for Action’ (Society of Conservative Lawyers 2020) <https://e1a359c7-7583-4e55-8088-a1c763d8c9d1.usrfiles.com/ugd/e1a359_e1cc81d017ae4bdc87e658c4bbb2c8e1.pdf>.
22 Stephen Laws, ‘Legislating for the Relaxation of the Lockdown’ (Policy Exchange 2020) <https://policyexchange.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Legislating-for-the-relaxation-of-the-lockdown.pdf> accessed 18 June 2020.
23 Hussain v. Secretary of State for Health and Social Care [2020] EWHC 1392 (Admin).
24 S. 89 Coronavirus Act 2020.
25 S. 97 ibid.
26 S. 98 ibid.
27 S. 99 ibid.
28 See these restrictions in Articles 8, 9, 10, 11 and Article 2 of Protocol 4 of the ECHR.
29 Art 15 ECHR.
30 Art. 4 ICCPR.
31 Art 15 ECHR, Art 4 ICCPR.
32 Kuimov v. Russia no. 32147/04, 8 January 2009, see in particular paragraph 96.
33 Enhorn v. Sweden (Application no. 56529/00) 25 January 2005.
34 UN Doc E/CN.4/1984/4 (1984).
35 Paragraph I. A10.
36 Paragraph I. A11.
37 Paragraph II. B45.
38 Paragraph II. C51.
39 ‘Memo: The Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR): History and Interpretation in Public Health Context’ <https://health-rights.org/index.php/cop/item/memo-the-siracusa-principles-on-the-limitation-and-derogation-provisions-in-the-international-covenant-for-civil-and-political-rights-iccpr-history-and-interpretation-in-public-health-context> accessed 4 April 2020.
40 ‘WHO | International Health Regulations (2005)’ <https://www.who.int/ihr/publications/9789241580496/en/> accessed 4 April 2020.
41 Venice Commission, Rule of Law Checklist (Council of Europe, 2016).
42 ibid 22.
43 ‘Respecting Democracy, Rule of Law and Human Rights in the Framework of the COVID-19 Sanitary Crisis: A Toolkit for Member States’ (Council of Europe 2020) <https://rm.coe.int/sg-inf-2020-11-respecting-democracy-rule-of-law-and-human-rights-in-th/16809e1f40>.
44 Geneva Declaration: International Committee of Jurists Declaration and Plan of Action on Upholding the Rule of Law and the Role of Judges and Lawyers in Times of Crisis.
45 Resolution on EU coordinated action to combat the COVID-19 pandemic and its consequence, available at <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2020-0143_EN.html> (accessed 17 April 2020).
46 See the papers in this special issue dealing with Hungary and Poland for example.
47 Anna Khakee, Securing Democracy? A Comparative Analysis of Emergency Powers in Europe (Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) 2009).
48 See for example Yanying Bi, ‘Experimentalist Approach of Chinese Legislation Model: From Passive Response to Institutional Design’ (2015) 3 The Theory and Practice of Legislation 141.
49 The Rugby World Cup (Empowering) Act 2011 expressly stated that it would mainly expire after the event was over. Bar-Siman-Tov gives a much more detailed analysis of the circumstances when these exceptions apply, Ittai Bar-Siman-Tov and Gaya Harari-Heit, ‘The Legisprudential and Political Functions of Temporary Legislation’, Time, Law and Change: An Interdisciplinary Study (2020).
50 ibid.
51 Bruce Ackerman, ‘The Emergency Constitution’ (2004) 113 Yale Law Journal 1029.
52 Sofia Ranchordas, Constitutional Sunsets and Experimental Legislation: A Comparative Perspective (Edward Elgar Pub 2015).
53 ‘PM Sets out Case for Data Surveillance’ (BBC News) <https://www.bbc.com/news/av/uk-politics-28244294/data-surveillance-public-should-worry-if-we-don-t-act> accessed 8 April 2020.
54 Exactly the same provision is made in corresponding legislation for Scotland, England and Wales: the Health Protection (Coronavirus) (Restrictions) (Scotland) Regulations 2020, the Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (England) Regulations 2020 and the Health Protection (Coronavirus Restrictions) (Wales) Regulations 2020.
55 Andrew Blick and Clive Walker, ‘Why Did Government Not Use the Civil Contingencies Act?’ (Law Gazette) <https://www.lawgazette.co.uk/legal-updates/why-did-government-not-use-the-civil-contingencies-act/5103742.article> accessed 18 June 2020.
56 Ackerman (n 51) 1047.
57 ‘Coronavirus Bill: A Rule of Law Analysis (Supplementary Report – House of Lords)’ <https://binghamcentre.biicl.org/publications/coronavirus-bill-a-rule-of-law-analysis-supplementary-report-house-of-lords> accessed 8 April 2020; ‘Rule of Law Monitoring of Legislation – Coronavirus Bill’ <https://binghamcentre.biicl.org/publications/rule-of-law-monitoring-of-legislation-coronavirus-bill> accessed 8 April 2020.
58 Ben Meir v. Prime Minister (26.4.2020) (English translation) available at <https://versa.cardozo.yu.edu/opinions/ben-meir-v-prime-minister-0>, paragraph 32 President Hayut.
59 President Hayut, paragraph 33, ibid.
60 Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1989.
61 Article 38 of the Basic Law: The Government.
62 See their Inquiry – Responding to Covid-19 and the Coronavirus Act 2020, available at <https://committees.parliament.uk/work/310/responding-to-covid19-and-the-coronavirus-act-2020/> (accessed 18/6/2020).
63 ‘Italy’s Coronavirus Legislative Response: Adjusting Along the Way’ (Verfassungsblog) <https://verfassungsblog.de/italys-coronavirus-legislative-response-adjusting-along-the-way/> accessed 8 April 2020.
64 F. Bouhon, ‘States’ Reactions to COVID-19 Pandemic: An Overview of the Belgian Case’ <https://www.iconnectblog.com/2020/04/states-reactions-to-covid-19-pandemic-an-overview-of-the-belgian-case/> accessed 18 April 2020.
65 Although for various technical reasons, when the Coronavirus Act 2020 expires, these regulations in Scotland and Northern Ireland will also expire, not so for the English and Welsh social distancing regulations.
66 Brandreth and Sandhurst (n 21).
67 Lord Sandhurst and Anthony Speaight, ‘Pardonable in the Heat of Crisis – but We Must Urgently Return to the Rule of Law’ (Society of Conservative Lawyers 2020) <https://e1a359c7-7583-4e55-8088-a1c763d8c9d1.usrfiles.com/ugd/e1a359_111f913771334f50ae1a5cf7f1a7abe7.pdf>.
68 For example, see (2013) 39(3) Commonwealth Law Bulletin special issue on legislative drafting, where most articles approvingly cite Thornton at some point.
69 G.C. Thornton and Helen Xanthaki, Thornton’s Legislative Drafting (Bloomsbury Professional 2013). See in particular pages 499 to 503.
70 ibid 499.
71 Hansard, House of Commons 13 March 2018 Col 73.
72 Kim Lane Scheppele, ‘Autocratic Legalism’ (2018) 85 The University of Chicago Law Review 545.
73 9th Report of Session 2019–21, (23 March 2020) HL Paper 42, available at <https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld5801/ldselect/lddelreg/42/4202.htm> (accessed 17 June 2020).
74 J. Hinks, ‘The Coronavirus Act 2020: An Example of ‘Excessive Executive Dominance’, U.K. Const. L. Blog (9th June 2020), available at <https://ukconstitutionallaw.org/>.
75 Hansard, HC Debs 15 October 2001 col 923.
76 Michael Smyth, ‘The Public Law of Commercial Regulation’ (2009) 14 Judicial Review 197, 208.
77 Jean-Pierre Duprat and Helen Xanthaki, ‘Legislative Drafting Techniques / Formal Legistics’ in Legislation in Europe: A Comprehensive Guide for Scholars and Practitioners (Hart 2017) 116.
78 P. Morville, Ambient Findability: What We Find Changes Who We Become (O’Reilly 2005).
79 ‘Coronavirus Legislation’ <https://www.legislation.gov.uk/coronavirus> accessed 16 April 2020.
80 Hansard 4 May 2020 Vol. 675 Column 460.
81 Brandreth and Sandhurst (n 21).
82 See paper by Jan Petrov in this issue.
83 See for example the control by the Executive of the parliamentary timetable in the UK which led to the fast-tracking of the Early Parliamentary General Elections Act 2019, the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 and the Terrorist Offenders (Restriction of Early Release) Act 2020. The subject matter of all these Acts would struggle to satisfy the requirement of a true ‘emergency’.