The genus Avicennia, a pioneer group of dominant mangrove plant species with potential medicinal values: a review

Figures & data

Table 1 . Avicennia species variance and distribution.

Species	Variance of species	Distribution	References
Avicennia balanophora Stapf and Moldenke	-	Along the coast of Australia	http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
			http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan. 12]
			http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
Avicennia bicolor Standl.	–	Widely distributed along the coastline of Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama	http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
			http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan. 12]
			http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
			http://www.iucnredlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
Avicennia germinans L. L.	A africana P.Beauv	Species is found along the coastline of North and South America including coastline of Angola Angola, Jamaica, Liberia, Mauritania, Mexico, Antigua and Barbuda. Besides the species is widely distributed in African coastline including Congo, Ghana, Nigeria.	http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A elliptica Thunb		http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A elliptica var. martii Moldenke		http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan. 12]
	A floridana Gand.		http://www.iucnredlist.org- [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A. floridana Raf.
	A. germinans f. brasiliensis Moldenke
	A. germinans var. cumanensis (Kunth) Moldenke
	A. germinans var. germinans,
	A. germinans var. guayaquilensis (Kunth) Moldenke
	A. germinans f. venezuelensis Moldenke
	A. lamarckiana C. Presl
	A. meyeri Miq
	A. nitida Sessé & Moc
	A. nitida Jacq
	A. nitida var. trinitensis Moldenke
	A. oblongifolia Nutt. ex Chapm.,
	A. officinalis var. lanceolata Kuntze
	A. officinalis var. nitida Kuntze
	A. tomentosa Jacq
	A. tomentosa var. campechensis Jacq
	A. tomentosa var. cUmamaheswarraonensis (Kunth)
	A. tomentosa var. guayaquilensis (Kunth)
	Bontia germinans L.,
	Hilairanthus nitidus Jacq. Tiegh
	Hilairanthus tomentosus Jacq. Tiegh
Avicennia integra N. C. Duke	–	The species is restricted to the coastline of Australia	http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
			http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
			http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
			http://www.iucnredlist.org- [cited 2016 Jan 12]
Avicennia marina Forssk. Vierh.	A. alba Blume	Distribution include Australia, South and South-east Asia including Singapore, Vietnam, Middle east, Coastline of Africa including Egypt, Madagascar, Mozambique, South Africa, Tanzania,	http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A. alba var. latifolia Moldenke		http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A. eucalyptifolia Valeton Zipp. ex Moldenke		http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A. intermedia Griff		http://www.iucnredlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A. lanata Ridl
	A. marina var. alba Blume Bakh
	A. marina f. angustata Moldenke,
	A. marina var. anomala Moldenke,
	A. marina var. australasica Walp. Moldenke A. marina var. eucalyptifolia Valeton N. C. Duke A. marina var. intermedia Griff. Bakh
	A. marina f. intermedia Griff. Moldenke
	A. marina subsp. marina
	A. marina var. marina
	A. marina var. resinifera G. Forst. Bakh
	A. mindanaensis Elmer
	A. officinalis var. alba Blume C. B. Clarke
	A. officinalis var. eucalyptifolia Valeton,
	A. resinifera G. Forst
	A. rumphiana Hallier f
	A. sphaerocarpa Stapf ex Ridl
	A. spicata Kuntze
	A. tomentosa var. arabica Walp
	Sceura marina Forssk
Avicennia officinalis L.	A. obovata Griff	Sparsely found in coasts of South and South east Asia and restricted to Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam	http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A. oepata Buch.-Ham		http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A. officinalis var. acuminata Domin		http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A. officinalis f. flaviflora Kuntze		http://www.iucnredlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
Avicennia schaueriana Stapf & Leechm. ex Moldenke	A. schaueriana f. candicans Moldenke	Coastline of North and South America including Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Brazil, Dominica, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela	http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A. schaueriana f. glabrescens Moldenke		http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
	A. tomentosa Schauer		http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
			http://www.iucnredlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
Avicennia tonduzii Moldenke	–	Pacific coast mainly in Costa Rica	http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
			http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]

Table 2. Ethnomedicinal uses of Avicennia sp.

Species	Parts	Ethnomedicinal Uses	References
A. africana	Bark/stem	Antitumor, antiulcer, cure for thrush, gangrenous wounds, lice, mange, ring worms and skin parasites	Ito et al. (2000)
A. alba	Bark/stem	Contraceptive, anti-fertility, paralysis, scabies, rheumatism, aphrodisiac, asthma, skin disease, sexual disorders, snake-bites, analgesic and antiulcer, boils	Bandaranayake (1998), Kar et al. (2014b)
	Leaf
	Fruit
A. germinans	Bark/stem	Astringent, antihaemorrhagic, malaria, antidiarrhetic, anti-tumours, treatment for haemorrhage, haemorrhoids, rheumatism, swellings, throat ailments	Bandaranayake (2002), Rollet (1981), Fauvel et al. (1995)
	Leaf
A. marina	Bark/Stem	Antiulcer, treatment for rheumatism, small pox, skin diseases	Fauvel et al. 1993, Bandaranayake (2002)
	Leaf
	Fruits
	Seeds
A. nitida	Bark/Stem	Cure for thrush, antitumor, antiulcer	Bandaranayake (2002)
	Leaf
	Seeds
A. officinalis	Bark/Stem	Contraceptive, astringent, diuretic, antiulcer, treatment for snake bites, rheumatism, small pox, skin diseases, hepatitis, leprosy, antitumor, Bronchial asthma, antibacterial, gastroprotective, aphrodisiac, boils and abscesses	Sumithra et al. (2011a), Thirunavukkarasu et al. (2011)
	Fruits
	Leaf
	Roots
	Seeds
A. tomentosa	Leaf	Treatment for rheumatism	Bandaranayake (2002)
	Bark

Table 3. List of various classes of phytochemicals present in Avicennia sp.

Phyto-chemicals	Parts of the plant used	Extract(s)of the parts that contain phytochemical	References
Alkaloids	A. alba stem/bark	M, E, A,H,C,B, W,	Satyaveni et al. (2013)
	A. marina leaf	M, E,EE,EA,W,	Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Khattab et al. (2012), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Bandaranayake (1994)
	Seed	EA	Khattab et al. (2012)
	A. officinalis leaf	M,E,	Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Hossain et al. (2012), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Bandaranayake (1994)
Flavonoids	A. alba stem	M,E,A,H,C,EA,W	Satyaveni et al. (2013)
	A. marina leaf	M,EE,E,EA,W	Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Khattab et al. (2012)
	Stem/bark	E,C,	Tukiran (2013), Khafagi et al. (2003)
	Seed	EA	Khattab et al. (2012)
	A. officinalis leaf	M,E	Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
	Fruit	M,E,A,EA,	Sharief et al. (2014a)
Glycosides	A. marina leaf	M,EA,EE,E,W	Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
	Stem/bark	E	Khafagi et al. (2003)
	Seed	EA	Khattab et al. (2012)
	A. officinalis leaf	M	Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
Phenols	A. marina; leaf	M,EA,E,W, EE	Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Khattab et al. (2012)
	Seed	EA,	Khattab et al. (2012)
	A. officinalis leaf	M	Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
	Fruit	EA,E,A,	Sharief et al. (2014a)
Saponins	A. alba stem/bark	M,A,E,W	Satyaveni et al. (2013)
	A. marina; leaf	M,EA	Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Khattab et al. (2012), Bandaranayake (1994)
	Seeds	EA	Khattab et al. (2012)
	A. officinalis leaf	M,	Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
	Bark	E	Bandaranayake (1994)
	A. resinifera leaf	M	Bandaranayake (1994)
Steroids	A. alba leaf	M,	Bandaranayake (1994)
	Stem/bark	M,A,H,W	Satyaveni et al. (2013), Bandaranayake (1994)
	A. marina leaf	M,E,W,EA,EE	Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Khattab et al. (2012), Bandaranayake (1994)
	Bark/stem	E,	Mouafi et al. (2014)
	Seeds	EA	Khattab et al. (2012)
	A. nitida; bark	M	Bandaranayake (1994)
	A. officinalis leaf	M	Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
	Stem/bark	M	Bandaranayake (1994)
	A. resinifera leaf	M	Bandaranayake (1994)
	A. tomentosa leaf	M	Bandaranayake (1994)
	Bark	M	Bandaranayake (1994)
Tannins	A. alba leaf	M,W,EA,EE,E	Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Mouafi et al. (2014), Khattab et al. (2012), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
	Stem/bark	E	Bandaranayake (1994)
	A. marina leaf	M,A,EA,EE,E	Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Mouafi et al. (2014), Khattab et al. (2012), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
	Bark	E,	Khafagi et al. (2003), Bandaranayake (1994)
	A. nitida; bark	M,E	Bandaranayake (1994)
	A. officinalis leaf	M	Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
	Stem/bark	E	Bandaranayake (1994)
	A. resinifera leaf	M	Bandaranayake (1994)
	Bark	E	Bandaranayake (1994)
	A. tomentosa leaf	M	Bandaranayake (1994)
	Bark	E	Bandaranayake (1994)
Terpenoids	A. alba stem	M,A,H	Satyaveni et al. (2013)
	A. marina; leaf	M,E,W,EA,EE	Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
	Seeds	EA	Khattab et al. (2012)
	A. officinalis leaf	M	Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)

Note: A: acetone, C: chloroform, EA: ethyl acetate, E: ethanol, EE: ethyl ether, H: hexane, M: methanol, W: water.

Table 4. Phytoconstituents isolated from Avicennia sp.

Phytoconstituents	Plant	Part	References
Flavonoids
Luteolin 7-O-methylether 1	A. marina	L	Sharaf et al. (2000)
7 -o-methylether 2	A. marina	L	Sharaf et al. (2000)
Luteolin 7-O-methylether 3’-O-β-D-glucoside 3	A. marina	L	Sharaf et al. (2000)
Chrysoeriol 7-Oglucoside 4	A. marina	L	Sharaf et al. (2000)
Isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside 5	A. marina	L	Sharaf et al. (2000)
5-hydroxy-4; 7-dimethoxyflavone 6	A. marina	L	Jia et al. (2004)
Quercetin 7	A. marina	L	Jia et al. (2004)
Kaempferol 8	A. marina	L	Jia et al. (2004)
4’5-dihydroxy-3’-5,7-diimethoxyflavone 9	A. marina	L	Feng et al. (2007)
4’,5-dihydroxy-3’,7-trimethoxyflavone 10	A. marina	L	Feng et al. (2007)
4’,5,7-trihydroxyflavone 11	A. marina	L	Feng et al. (2007)
3’,4’,5-trihydroxy-7-methoxyflavone 12	A. marina	L	Feng et al. (2007)
2-[3’-3’-hydroxymethyloxiran-2’-yl-2’ methoxy-4’-methoxymethylphenyl]-4H chromen-4-one 13	A. marina	B	Kar et al. (2014b)
Velutin 14	A. officinalis	L	Majumdar et al. (1981)
Naphthalene Derivatives
naphtha[1,2-b]furan-4,5-dione 15	A. marina	S	Sutton et al. (1985)
3-hydroxy-naphtha[1,2-b]furan- 4,5-dione 16	A. marina	S	Sutton et al. (1985)
2-[2’-2’-hydroxypropyl]-naphtha[1,2-b]furan-4,5-dione 17	A. marina	S	Sutton et al. (1985)
Avicennone A-G 18-24	A. marina	B	Han et al. (2007)
Avicenol A-C 25-27	A. alba;	B	Ito et al. (2000)
	A. marina;	B	Han et al. (2007)
Avicenol C 27	A. officinalis	A	Anjaneyulu et al. (2003)
Avicequinone A-C 28-30	A .alba;	B	Ito et al. (2000)
	A. marina	B	Han et al. (2007)
Stenocarpoquinone B 31	A. marina	B	Han et al. (2007)
7’S, 8’R-4,4’,9’-trihydroxy-3,3’,5,5’- tetramethoxy-7,8-dehydro-9-al-2,7’-Cycloligan 32	A. marina	B	Han et al. (2007)
Lyoniresinol 33	A. marina	B	Han et al. (2007)
Tannins
Lapachol 34	A. marina;	B	Bournot (1913)
	A. tomemtosa
Catechin 35	A. officinalis	L, B	Sura et al. (2011)
Chlorogenic acid 36	A. officinalis	L, B	Sura et al. (2011)
Gallic acids 37	A. officinalis	L, B	Sura et al. (2011)
Elagic acids 38	A. officinalis	L, B	Sura et al. (2011)
Steroids
ß-sitosterol 39	A. marina	L	Jia et al. (2004)
	A. officinalis		Ghosh et al. (1985)
Ergost-6,22-diene-5,8-epidioxy-3ß-ol 40	A. marina	L	Jia et al. (2004)
Stigmasterol-3-O-β-D galactopyranoside 41	A. marina	A	Mahera et al. (2011)
Stigmasterol 42	A. marina;	A	Mahera et al. (2011) Ghosh et al. (1985)
	A. officinalis	L
Cholesterol 43	A. officinalis	L	Ghosh et al. (1985)
Campesterol 44	A. officinalis	L	Ghosh et al. (1985)
Stigmast-7-en-3β-ol 45	A. officinalis	L	Ghosh et al. (1985)
Terpenoids
Lupeol 46	A. marina	L, A	Jia et al. (2004), Mahera et al. (2011), Khanh et al. (2013)
	A. lanata	L
Taraxerol 47	A. alba	L, B	Mahera et al. (2011), Majumdar and Patra (1979)
	A. marina	A
	A. officinalis;	L, B, A
	A. tomentosa
Taraxerone 48	A. marina	A	Bell and Duewell (1961), Majumdar and Patra (1979)
	A. officinalis;	L, B,
	A. tomentosa	A
Betulinic acid 49	A. alba	L, B	Mahera et al. (2011), Ramanjaneyulu et al. (2015), Majumdar and Patra (1979)
	A. marina	A
	A. officinalis;	L, B, A
	A. tomentosa
Betulin 50	A. alba	L, B	Jia et al. (2004), Khanh et al. (2013), Ramanjaneyulu et al. (2015), Majumdar and Patra (1979)
	A. marina;	L
	A. lanata	L, B, A
	A. officinalis;
	A. tomentosa
Betulin aldehyde 51	A. officinalis	A	Ramanjaneyulu et al. 2015
Ursolic acid 52	A. marina	A	Mahera et al. (2013), Khanh et al. (2013)
	A. lanata	L
α-amyrin 53	A. marina	L, A	Mahera et al. (2013)
β-amyrin 54	A. alba	L, B	Majumdar and Patra (1979)
	A. officinalis;	L, B, A
	A. tomentosa
6Hα-11,12,16-trihydroxy-6,7-secoabieta-8,11,13-triene-6,7-dial 11,6-hemiacetal 55	A. marina	B	Han et al. (2008)
6Hß-11,12,16-trihydroxy-6,7- secoabieta-8,11,13-triene-6,7-dial 11,6-hemiacetal 56	A. marina	B	Han et al. (2008)
6,11,12,16-tetrahydroxy-5,8,11,13- abitetetraen-7-one 57	A. marina	B	Han et al. (2008)
Rhizophorin-A 58	A. officinalis	A	Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Rhizophorin-B 59	A. officinalis	A	Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Ent-13S-2,3-seco-14-labden-2,8-olide-3-oic acid 60	A. officinalis	A	Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Ribenone 61	A. officinalis	A	Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Ent-16-hydroxy-3-oxo-13-epi-manoyl oxide 62	A. officinalis	A	Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Ent-15- hydroxy-labda-8 63	A. officinalis	A	Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
13E-dien-3-one 64	A. officinalis	A	Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
ent-3a,15-dihydroxylabda-8 65	A. officinalis	A	Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
13E-diene 66	A. officinalis	A	Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Excoecarin A 67	A. officinalis	A	Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Ent-beyerane, rhizophorin-B 68	A. officinalis	A	Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Fatty Acids
Oleic acid 69	A. marina	F,L	Chinnappan et al. (2013), Manilal et al. (2009)
Linolenic acid 70	A. marina	L	Manilal et al. (2009)
Palmetic acid 71	A. marina	L	Manilal et al. (2009)
Stearic acid 72	A. marina	L	Manilal et al. (2009)
Lauric acid 73	A. marina	L	Manilal et al. (2009)
Myristic acid 74	A. marina	L	Manilal et al. (2009)
Glucosides
7-O-trans cinnamoyl-4-epilogenin 75	A. officinalis	L	Ghani et al. (1998)
geniposidic acid 76	A. marina;	L	Konig and Rimpler (1985)
	A. officinalis		Konig et al. (1987)
2’-cinnamoyl-mussaenosidic acid 77	A. marina;	L	Konig and Rimpler (1985)
	A. officinalis;		Konig et al. (1987)
	a. germinans
Mussaenoside 78	A. marina	L	Konig and Rimpler (1985)
2’-cinnamoyl-mussaenoside 79	A. marina	L	Konig and Rimpler (1985)
10-O-5-phenyl-2,4-pentadienoyl-geniposide 80	A. marina;	L	Konig and Rimpler (1985)
	A. officinalis		Pandey and Garg (1996)
7-O-5-phenyl-2,4-pentadienoyl-8-epiloganin 81	A. marina	L	Konig and Rimpler (1985)
10-O-[E-cinnamoyl]-geniposidic acid 82	A. marina	L	Shaker et al. (2001)
10- O-[E-p-coUmamaheswarraoroyl]-geniposidic acid 83	A. marina	L	Feng et al. (2006)
10-O-[E- caffeoyl]-geniposidic acid 84	A. marina	L	Feng et al. (2006)
2’-O-[E-cinnamoyl]mussaenosidic acid 85	A. marina	L	Feng et al. (2006)
2’-O-[2E,4E-5-phenylpenta-2,4-dienoyl]mussaenosidic acid 86	A. marina	L	Feng et al. (2006)
and 2’-O-4 mehtoxycinnamoylmussaenosidic acid 87	A. marina	L	Feng et al. (2006)
2’-O-coUmamaheswarraoroylmussaenosidic acid 88	A. marina	L	Feng et al. (2006)
Marinoids A - E 89-93	A. marina	L	Sun et al. (2008)
Verbascoside 94	A. marina	L	Fauvel et al. (1993)
Isoverbascoside 95	A. marina	L	Fauvel et al. (1993)
Derhamnosylverbascosid 96	A. marina	L	Fauvel et al. (1993)
11-hydroxy- 8,11,13-abietatriene 12-O- β -xylopyranoside 97	A. marina	B	Han et al. (2008)
Lyoniresinol 9’-O- β –D glucopyranoside 98	A. marina	B	Han et al. (2008)
7-O-cinnamoyl-8-epiloganic acid sodium salt 99	A. officinalis	B	Konig et al. (1987)
8-O-cinnamoylmussaenosidic acid 100	A. officinalis	L	Pandey and Garg (1996)
Officinosidic acid 101	A. officinalis	L	Pandey and Garg (1996)
Loganin 102	A. officinalis	L	Pandey and Garg (1996)
2’-Caffeoyl-mussaenosidic acid 103	A. germinans	L	Fauvel et al. (1995)
2’-CoUmamaheswarraoroyl-mussaenosidic acid 104	A. germinans	L	Fauvel et al. (1997)
C irdoid glucoside 105	A. officinalis	L	Ghani et al. (1998)
Others
p-methoxy cinnamic acid 106	A. marina	L	Jia et al. (2004)
R-hydroxy-5-phenyl-4E-pentanoic acid 107	A. marina	L	Sun et al. (2008)
Syringaresinol 108	A. marina	L	Sun et al. (2008)
Indolyl-3-arboxylic acid 109	A. marina	L	Fauvel et al. (1993)

Note:A: aerial root, B: bark/stem, F: flower, S: seed, L: leaf.

Table 5. Important phytoconstituents of Avicennia sp. with pharmacological properties.

Chemical constituents	Pharmacological properties	Structure	References
20 Avicennone C	Antiproliferative antimicrobial		Han et al. (2007)
22 Avicennone E
23 Avicennone F
31 Stenocarpoquinone B
24 Avicennone A	Antimicrobial		Han et al. (2007)
30 Avicequinone C	Anti-androgenic		Jain et al. (2014)
35 Catechin	Cytoprotective antiulcerogenic		Konig et al. (1994)
36 Chlorogenic acid			Gonzales et al. (2000)
37 Gallic acid			Ramirez and Roa (2003)
38 Elagic acid
49 Betulinic acid	Anticancer anti-inflammatory		Sumithra et al. (2011)
			Hossain et al. (2012)
41 Stigmasterol-3-O-β-D glucopyranoside	Antiglycation		Mahera et al. (2013)
3 Luteolin 7-O-methylether 3β-O-β-D-glucoside	Anticancer		Zhu et al. (2009)
			Ramanjaneyulu (2015)
69 Oleic acid	Hypotensive		Chinnappan et al. (2013)
	Antimicrobial		Manilal et al. (2009)
	Antacids
	Antinflamatory
55 6Hα-11,12,16-trihydroxy-6,7-secoabieta-8,11,13-triene-6,7-dial 11,6-hemiacetal	Anticancer		Han et al. (2008)
56 6Hß-11,12,16-trihydroxy-6,7-secoabieta-8,11,13-triene-6,7-dial 11,6-hemiacetal	Antimicrobial
67 6,11,12,16-tetrahydroxy-5,8,11,13-abitetetraen-7-one
70 Linolenic Acid	Antimicrobial		Manilal et al. (2009)
71 Palmitic Acid
72 Stearic Acid
73 Lauric Acid
74 Myristi Acid

Table 6 Pharmacological activity of Avicennia sp.

Species	Extract	Experimental model	Biological effect	References
Antimicrobial
A. alba	A	Agar well diffusion	Activity against Alcaligens faecalis, Proteus mirabilis, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Rhodococcus rhodochrous, Escherichia coli, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Streptococcus mutans, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus flavus, Tricophyton rubrum	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012), Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
Leaf
	B	Agar well diffusion	Activity against Arthrobacter protophormiae, Salmonella enterica and P. mirabilis	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012)
	C	Agar well diffusion	Activity against R. rhodochrous, S. enterica, A. faecalis and P. aeruginosa	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012)
	EA	Agar well diffusion	Activity against against R. rhodochrous, E. faecalis, A. faecalis, P. mirabilis, P. vulgaris and P. aeruginosa, E coli, A. tumefaciens, S. mutans, S. aureus, T. rubrum	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012)Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
		Disc diffusion
	H	Agar well diffusion	Activity against A. protophormiae A. faecalis and P. aeruginosa, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Tricophyton rubrum	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012), Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
		Disc diffusion
	M	Agar well diffusion	Activity against R. rhodochrous A. faecalis, E. faecalis and P. aeruginosa, E coli, A. tumefaciens, S. mutans, S. aureus	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012), Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
		Disc diffusion
Stem/bark	A	Agar well diffusion	Activity against Micrococcus luteus, R. rhodochrous, B. subtilis, S. aureus, A. faecalil, P. mirabilis, P. aeruginosa, E. aerogenes	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012), Satyaveni et al. (2013)
	B	Agar well diffusion	Activity against A. protophormiae, B. subtilis, R. rhodochrous, P. vulgaris, Streptococcus mutans, S. aureus	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012)
	C	Agar well diffusion	Activity against R. rhodochrous, B. subtilis, S. aureus. A. faecalil, P. mirabilis and P. aeruginosa, E. aerogenes	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012)
	E	Agar well diffusion	Antimicrobial activity against E. aerogenes	Satyaveni et al. (2013)
	EA	Agar well diffusion	Activity against R. rhodochrous, B. subtilis, S. aureus, A. faecalil, P. mirabilis and P. aeruginosa	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012)
	H	Agar well diffusion	Activity against R. rhodochrous	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012)
	M	Agar well diffusion	Activity against A. protophormiae and E. faecalis	Nagababu and Umamaheswararao (2012), Satyaveni et al. (2013)
			E. aerogenes & Bacillus subtilis
	W	Agar well diffusion	Antimicrobial activity against E. aerogenes	Satyaveni et al. (2013)
A. marina	A	Agar well diffusion	Activity against Bacillus cereus, Enterococcus Faecalis, S. aureus, S. mutans, A. tumefaciens, Aspergillus flavus A. alternata A. flavus A. niger	Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2014) Afzal et al. (2011)
Leaf
	C	Agar well diffusion	Activity against S aureus Klebsiella pneumoniae, S. aureus, S. epidermides, E. coli, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae A. niger, Rhizopus oriyzae, C. albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, A. alternata A. flavus A. fumigatus A. niger C. herbarum P. notatum	Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Devi et al. (2012)Kumar et al. (2011)Afzal et al. (2011)
	DM	Food poison technique	A. alternata A. flavus A. fumigatus A. niger C. herbarum P. notatum	Afzal et al. (2011)
	E	Agar well diffusion	Activity against Enterobacter cloaca, B. cereus, E. Faecalis and Penicillium digitatum, E. coli, B. subtilis, S. aureus P. digitatum, F. oxysporum C. albicans, S. aureus, S. epidermides, E .coli, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae A. niger, Rhizopus oriyzae, C. albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, A. alternata A. flavus A. fumigatus A. niger C. herbarum P. notatum, Alternaria citri and Penicillium digitatum	Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2014)Behbahani et al. (2012)
				Mouafi et al. (2014)
				Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
				Kumar et al. (2011)
				Afzal et al. (2011)
				Behbahani et al. 2015
		Disc diffusion
	EA	Agar well diffusion	Growth inhibition against S. aureus, S. mutan, S, E. coli, A. tumefaciens, Aspergillus flavus, E. coli. Klebsiella pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, C. albicans	Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2014)
		Disc diffusion		Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
				Devi et al. (2012)
				Mouafi et al. (2014)
	EE	Agar well diffusion	Microbial Inhibition against E. coli, B. subtilis, S. aureus P. digitatum, F. oxysporum C. albicans	Mouafi et al. (2014)
	H	Disc diffusion	Growth inhibition against Bacillus cereus and S. mutans, S. aureus	Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
				Devi et al. (2012)
	WA	Disc diffusion	Noticeable anti candida effects seen in clinical vaginitis and standard strains of Candida albicans	Panahai et al. (2014)
	G	Disc diffusion method;	Activity against P. digitatum and E. coli	Behbahani et al. (2012)
				Amirkaveei and Behbahani (2011)
	M	Agar well diffusion	Activity against Enterobacter cloaca, Proteus vulgaris, Bacillus cereus, Enterococcus Faecalis and P. digitatum S. aureus, S. mutans, A. tumefaciens, E. coli. Klebsiella pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, S. epidermides, E .coli, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae A. niger, Rhizopus oriyzae, C. albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2014)
		Disc diffusion		Behbahani et al. (2012)
				Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
				Devi et al. (2012)
				Kumar et al. (2011)
	PE	Agar well diffusion	Activity against S. aureus, S. epidermides, E .coli, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae	Kumar et al. (2011)
			A. niger, Rhizopus oriyzae, C. albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
	W	Poisoned food technique	A. alternata A. flavus A. fumigatus A. niger C. herbarum P. notatum, S. cerevisiae, Alternaria citri and Penicillium digitatum	Afzal et al. (2011)
				Behbahani et al. (2015)
Stem/bark	B	Disc diffusion	Activity against B. subtilis, P. mirabilis	Ruba et al. (2013)
	E	Disc diffusion	Activity against with S. aureus, P. mirabilis and Serratia marcescens	Ruba et al. (2013)
	EA	Disc diffusion	Activity against B. subtilis, S. aureus and P. mirabilis	Ruba et al. (2013)
	M	Disc diffusion	Growth inhibition against with P. vulgaris	Ruba et al. (2013)
	PE	Disc diffusion	Activity against B. subtilis, S. aureus, S. paratyphi, P. mirabilis, Escherrichia coli, and S. marcescens	Ruba et al. (2013)
	A	Agar well diffusion	Activity against E. coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, S. aureus and S. pyogenes	Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
A. officinalis	A, EA, M	Disc diffusion	Activity against E. coli, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, S. mutans, S. aureus, K. pneumonia, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis	Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014), Valentin et al. (2010), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
Leaf
Stem/bark	B, E, EA	Agar well diffusion	Activity against E. coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, S. aureus and S. pyogenes	Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
	H	Agar well diffusion	Activity against K. pneumoniae, B. subtilis, L. delbrueckii and S. aureus	Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
	M	Agar well diffusion	Activity against E. coli, E. aerogenes, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, L. delbrueckii, S. aureus and S. pyogenes	Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
Roots	A, E, M	Agar well diffusion	Activity against E. coli, E. aerogenes, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, L. delbrueckii, S. aureus and S. pyogenes	Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
Fruit	A	Agar well diffusion	Antimicrobial activity against E. coli E. aerogenes, B. cereus and E. Faecalis, E. cloacae	Sharief et al. (2014b, 2015)
	E	Agar well diffusion	Antimicrobial activity against E coli E aerogenes Klebsiella pneumoniae P. aeruginosa B. subtilis L. delbrueckii Staphylococcus aureus S. pyogenes, B. cereus and E. Faecalis, E. cloacae, P. vulgaris	Sharief et al. (2014b, 2015)
	EA	Agar well diffusion	Antimicrobial activity against L. delbrueckii S. aureus, B. cereus and E. Faecalis	Sharief et al. (2014b, 2015)
	M	Agar well diffusion	Antimicrobial activity against E coli E aerogenes Klebsiella pneumoniae P. aeruginosa B. subtilis L. delbrueckii Staphylococcus aureus S. pyogenes, B. cereus and E. Faecalis, E. cloacae, P. vulgaris	Sharief et al. (2014b, 2015)
A. schaueriana	E	Disc diffusion	Antimicrobial activity against C. gloeosporioides and C. sphaerospermum	Fardin and Young (2015)
Leaf
	M	Disc diffusion	Antimicrobial activity against gloeosporioides and C. sphaerospermum	Fardin and Young (2015)
Stem/bark	E	Disc diffusion	Antimicrobial activity against gloeosporioides and C. sphaerospermum	Fardin and Young (2015)
	M	Disc diffusion	Antimicrobial activity against gloeosporioides and C. sphaerospermum	Fardin and Young (2015)
Antidiarrhoeal
A. alba	M	Castor oil induced	Increases mean latent period and reduces frequency of defecation	Rahman et al. (2011)
Leaf
Analgesic and antipyretic
A. alba	M	Radiant heat	Modulates to relive pain generated from sensory mediators, Prostaglandin inhibition	Kar et al. (2014b)
Leaf		Tail immersion
		Brewer's yeast-induced fever
Antiulcer
A. officinalis	W	NSAID-induced ulcer	Stimulates prostaglandin E2, prevents gut secretions and protection from toxins and other irritants	Thirunavukkarasu et al. (2010)
	E	Aspirin + Pyloric ligation-induced ulcer	Prevents increased acid secretion	Sura et al. (2011)
	E	Indomethacine-induced gastric ulcer	Decrease in gastric ulcers with reduced glutathione in the gastric mucosa	Sura et al. (2011)
	M	Ethanol- hydrochloric acid-induced ulcer	Prevents the direct toxic action of ethanol, reduction of the secretion of bicarbonate and depletion of gastric wall mucus	Aparna et al. (2014)
Antinoceptive
A. alba	M	Acetic acid-induced writhings	Significant writhing inhibition, Decrease in levels of PGE2 and PGF2α in peritoneal fluid	Rahman et al. (2011)
Leaf
A. officinalis	E	Acetic acid-induced writhings	Dose dependent writhing inhibition, Decrease levels of PGE2 and PGF2α in peritoneal fluid	Shahid et al. (2007)
Leaf
Anti-inflammatory
A. marina	WA	Rat model of rheumatoid arthritis	Reduces inflammatory markers and improvement in joint lesions	Shafie et al. (2013)
Leaf
A. officinalis	M	Carrageenin, Formalin, Freunds Complete Adjuvant	Inhibition of prostaglandin, more effective in chronic model than the acute model	Sumithra et al. (2011a)
Leaf
Diuretic
A. officinalis	M	Lipschitz dirutic model	Increases the volume of urine with a significant Na^+/K^+ excretion ratio	Hossain et al. (2012)
Leaf
Neuropharmacological
A. officinalis	M	Pentobarbital-induced hypnosis, Open field, Hole cross, Head dip	Reduces the onset of sleep, possess central sedative properties	Hossain et al. (2012)
Leaf
Antiviral/Anti-HIV
A. marina	E	Reverse transcriptase inhibitory assay, HBV DNA polymerase inhibition assay	Active against Encephalomyocarditis virus, reverse transcriptase HBs Ag and, HBV DNA polymerase	Beula et al. (2012)Premanathan et al. (1999)
Leaf
	E,W	Ames test Salmonella mutation assay	Antimutagenic activity	Karami et al. (2012)
	C, E, H, M, W	Plaque reduction assay, HIV replication assay	Methanol extract had the highest potential for inhibiting both Herpes simplex virus HSV and HIV	Namazi et al. (2013)
A. officinalis	E, PE, W	Reverse transcriptase inhibition, Gp120 binding inhibition assay Gp120/CD4 interaction assay	Inhibition of HIV-RT, binding inhibition of Gp120 and interaction inhibition of Gp120/CD4	Rege et al. (2010)
Leaf
Anticancer
A. marina	E	MTT assay using HL60 cell lines	Significant cytotoxic effect on HL-60 cells. Induces apoptosis in HL-60 cell line	Karami et al. (2012)
Leaf
	M	MTT assay MDA- MB 231 cancer cells	Antiproliferative effect	Momtazi-borojeni et al. (2013)
	M, W	MTT assay	Cytotoxicity against HL-60 and NCI-H23 cell line	Sukhramani and Patel (2013)
A. officinalis	M	Ehrlich ascitic carcinoma cell lines	Tumour inhibitory activity, gain in body weight, increase in life span and normal haematological parameters	Sumithra et al. (2013)
Leaf
Antioxidant
A. alba	A, M, W	DPPH scavenging; NO scavenging; Metal chelating	W extracts had highest antioxidant activity followed by A extracts.	Patra et al. (2014)
Leaf
A. marina	A	ABTS	Antioxidant activity of M extracts was superior.	Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
Stem/bark	E, EA,
	M
	E	DPPH scavenging;	Extracts of E showed efficient antioxidant activity	Selvasundhari et al. (2014)
	W	Reducing Power;
		NO scavenging
	A	DPPH scavenging;	All the extracts showed high degree of antioxidant activity in one or more antioxidant assays	Patra et al. (2014)
	E	NO scavenging;
	M	Metal chelating
	W
Fruits	A	ABTS, CrO5 assay; FRAP assay	Antioxidant activity of E was highest in ABTS, whereas M was better in rest two assays	Sharief et al. (2014b)
	E, EA,
	M
Roots	E, EA,	DPPH;	EA showed strong DPPH and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, whereas E and M were efficient in rest two assays	Packia-Lincy et al. (2013)
	M	Hydroxyl radical;
		Superoxide;
		ABTS
Flowers	E	Total Reducing Power;		Chinnappan et al. (2013)
		NO scavenging assay
Leaf	M	DPPH	Antioxidant activity	Thirunavukkarasu et al. (2013)
		SOD
	A	DPPH scavenging	Extract A had the highest overall antioxidant activity	Patra et al. (2014)
	M	NO scavenging
	W	Metal chelating
A. officinalis	A	ABTS;	Antioxidant activity of E was highest in ABTS, whereas M was better in rest two assays	Sharief et al. (2014b)
Fruits	E, EA,	CrO5;
Leaf	M	DPPH;
	M	FRAP
		DPPH	Antioxidant activity	Thirunavukkarasu et al. (2013)
		SOD
Antidiabetic
A. marina	E	Alloxan-induced diabetic model	Antihyperglycaemic activity	Babuselvam et al. (2013)
Leaf
Toxicity
A. marina	M,W	Cytotoxicity Assay	Shows negligible toxicity against normal cell line HEK-293T	Sukhramani and Patel (2013)
Leaf
	W	Sub toxicity assay	No significant differences between organs weight in control and extract treated animals were found.	Beula et al. (2012)
A. officinalis	E	Toxicity assay	No changes in behavioural pattern in most of the mice. Zero mortality rate	Sura et al. (2011)
Leaf

Note: A: acetone, B: benzene, C: Chloroform, DM: dimethyl sulfoxide, EA: ethyl acetate, E: ethanol, EE: ethyl ether, G: Glycerol, H: hexane, M: methanol, PE: petroleum ether, W: water, WA: water alcoholic.

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