Does Tourism Matter to National Innovation Capability?

Figures & data

Table 1. Data used in the analysis (first 30 countries).

Country	TourRec	RDExp	Trd	IDV	UAI	HTExp	Articles	Patents
Argentina	6.00	0.61	31.69	46	86	2.24	19.35	1.64
Australia	10.74	2.22	41.50	90	51	1.94	206.10	11.81
Austria	8.71	2.86	104.77	55	70	10.25	145.20	25.98
Belgium	3.25	2.32	162.99	75	94	7.90	150.72	6.31
Brazil	2.32	1.16	24.68	38	76	3.50	24.08	2.40
Bulgaria	12.35	0.59	124.08	30	85	3.71	36.69	3.60
Canada	3.73	1.76	62.23	80	48	6.48	171.38	13.46
Chile	3.32	0.37	68.48	23	86	0.75	29.52	1.95
China	2.30	1.89	48.42	20	30	24.70	25.39	40.83
Colombia	6.48	0.23	38.22	13	80	0.99	8.71	0.46
Costa Rica	19.05	0.53	67.74	15	86	25.24	6.25	0.32
Croatia	38.33	0.77	83.18	33	80	5.92	113.09	5.29
Czech Rep	5.16	1.75	144.77	58	74	13.84	132.91	8.36
Denmark	3.44	3.00	102.51	74	23	8.31	222.40	25.76
Ecuador	3.97	0.35	61.95	8	67	0.26	1.49	0.04
Estonia	7.43	2.05	167.86	60	60	7.53	109.97	2.69
Finland	4.80	3.45	79.36	63	59	6.01	194.91	30.44
France	7.99	2.22	58.82	71	86	19.23	112.54	22.28
Germany	3.20	2.83	85.15	67	65	13.08	129.12	58.41
Great Britain	6.41	1.65	61.78	89	35	14.33	158.50	23.91
Greece	23.72	0.73	61.06	35	112	2.99	108.33	6.18
Guatemala	11.18	0.05	61.17	6	101	1.87	0.45	0.03
Hungary	5.75	1.29	165.95	80	82	15.50	65.33	6.70
India	4.06	0.83	55.09	48	40	4.52	6.50	0.77
Indonesia	4.58	0.08	49.47	14	48	2.72	0.89	0.24
Ireland	4.06	1.55	192.48	70	35	18.55	158.98	9.59
Israel	6.44	4.11	69.44	54	81	14.03	147.81	16.36
Italy	7.01	1.26	55.74	76	75	5.95	108.76	14.26
Japan	1.72	3.26	31.73	46	92	15.32	85.99	221.02
Latvia	5.19	0.66	123.95	70	63	5.66	60.65	9.69

TourRec: International tourism receipts (% of total exports); RDExp: R&D expenditure (% of GDP); Trd: Trade (% of GDP); IDV: Individualism (Hofstede); UAI: Uncertainty Avoidance (Hofstede); HTExp: High-tech exports (% merchandise exports); Articles: Scientific and technical journal articles per 100,000 residents; Patents: Patent applications per 100,000 residents.

Table 2. Data used in the analysis (last 29 countries).

Country	TourRec	RDExp	Trd	IDV	UAI	HTExp	Articles	Patents
Lithuania	3.78	0.92	160.60	60	65	5.44	78.96	3.56
Luxembourg	5.36	1.36	338.18	60	70	6.26	122.50	19.24
Malaysia	8.22	1.06	148.50	26	36	26.82	51.43	3.87
Malta	8.48	0.76	317.46	59	96	22.26	56.93	2.62
Mexico	3.48	0.50	64.88	30	82	12.08	10.53	0.98
Netherlands	2.40	1.93	151.26	80	53	12.17	186.54	14.48
New Zealand	14.07	1.19	57.44	79	49	1.92	171.44	34.30
Norway	3.33	1.63	68.40	69	50	2.91	202.41	21.48
Pakistan	3.31	0.31	33.03	14	70	1.31	4.04	0.06
Panama	15.31	0.10	145.35	11	86	19.22	3.95	0.40
Peru	6.58	0.07	52.79	16	87	0.62	2.05	0.18
Philippines	7.59	0.13	64.28	32	44	35.44	0.93	0.20
Poland	5.21	0.83	89.03	60	93	5.31	73.61	10.97
Portugal	17.60	1.39	75.61	27	104	3.02	124.37	5.83
Romania	2.88	0.45	79.81	30	90	5.73	55.07	5.71
Russia	3.13	1.04	47.07	39	95	1.36	26.09	19.54
Singapore	3.26	2.06	372.17	20	8	31.93	200.55	20.63
Slovak Rep	2.91	0.76	177.87	52	51	7.56	78.78	3.55
Slovenia	8.11	2.54	141.47	27	88	5.04	181.76	22.90
South Korea	2.65	3.97	107.55	18	85	22.58	113.76	296.25
Spain	14.28	1.29	59.73	51	86	4.86	116.46	6.94
Sweden	4.08	3.28	86.49	71	29	9.96	202.82	23.18
Switzerland	4.39	2.97	125.99	68	58	22.43	262.50	19.18
Thailand	13.79	0.40	137.17	20	64	15.05	11.31	1.73
Trinidad and Tobago	4.30	0.05	115.91	16	55	0.13	15.29	0.15
Turkey	16.36	0.91	51.75	37	85	1.44	38.61	5.68
U.S.A.	9.14	2.74	30.61	91	46	11.29	137.22	85.37
Uruguay	13.98	0.33	52.68	36	100	2.02	17.62	0.62
Vietnam	5.33	0.28	161.52	20	30	14.90	1.71	0.41

TourRec: International tourism receipts (% of total exports); RDExp: R&D expenditure (% of GDP); Trd: Trade (% of GDP); IDV: Individualism (Hofstede); UAI: Uncertainty Avoidance (Hofstede); HTExp: High-tech exports (% merchandise exports); Articles: Scientific and technical journal articles per 100,000 residents; Patents: Patent applications per 100,000 residents.

Table 3. Analysis of necessary conditions for the presence of high levels of high-tech exports, scientific and technical journal articles, and patent applications.

	HTExp		Articles		Patents
	C1	C2	C1	C2	C1	C2
TourRec	0.552	0.593	0.549	0.580	0.515	0.530
RDExp	0.708	0.730	0.846	0.858	0.872	0.860
Trd	0.744	0.733	0.672	0.652	0.618	0.583
IDV	0.665	0.669	0.822	0.812	0.782	0.753
UAI	0.579	0.543	0.551	0.508	0.570	0.512
∼TourRec	0.675	0.619	0.663	0.597	0.708	0.621
∼RDExp	0.520	0.495	0.395	0.370	0.412	0.375
∼Trd	0.488	0.485	0.526	0.514	0.600	0.570
∼IDV	0.550	0.536	0.406	0.389	0.442	0.412
∼UAI	0.649	0.680	0.654	0.673	0.633	0.635

Note: C1: Consistency; C2: Coverage. HTExp: High-tech exports; TourRec: International tourism receipts; RDExp: R&D expenditure; Trd: Trade; IDV: Individualism; UAI: Uncertainty avoidance. ∼ represents the absence of the condition.

Table 4. Configurations leading to high-tech exports, scientific and technical journal articles, and patent applications.

Outcome: HTExp
Configuration	Conf. 1	Conf. 2a	Conf. 2b	Conf. 3	Conf. 4	Conf. 5
TourRec				⬤		⬤
RDExp	⬤			⬤	⬤
Trd		⬤	⬤		⬤	⬤
IDV	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤
UAI	⊗	⊗	⊗			⊗
C1	0.782	0.887	0.887	0.825	0.898	0.916
C2	0.440	0.406	0.406	0.364	0.459	0.310
C3	0.0254	0.0223	0.0223	0.0295	0.0315	0.0631
Overall C1	0.769	Overall C2	0.657
Outcome: Articles
Configuration	Conf. 1	Conf. 2	Conf. 3	Conf. 4
TourRec			⬤
RDExp	⬤		⬤	⬤
Trd		⬤		⬤
IDV	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤
UAI	⊗	⊗
C1	0.959	0.924	0.958	0.967
C2	0.548	0.430	0.430	0.503
C3	0.0641	0.0303	0.0432	0.0449
Overall C1	0.916	Overall C2	0.725
Outcome: Patents
Configuration	Conf. 1	Conf. 2	Conf. 3	Conf. 4
TourRec			⬤
RDExp	⬤		⬤	⬤
Trd		⬤		⬤
IDV	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤
UAI	⊗	⊗
C1	0.896	0.831	0.912	0.877
C2	0.526	0.397	0.421	0.468
C3	0.0651	0.0157	0.0476	0.0261
Overall C1	0.831	Overall C2	0.676

Note: C1: Consistency; C2: Coverage; C3: Unique coverage. HTExp: High-tech exports; TourRec: International tourism receipts; RDExp: R&D expenditure; Trd: Trade; IDV: Individualism; UAI: Uncertainty avoidance. Black circles indicate the presence of a condition; crossed-out circles indicate the absence of a condition; blank spaces indicate “don’t care”; large circles indicate core conditions; small circles indicate peripheral conditions.

Figure 1. Relation between the membership in Configuration 1 and the level of articles.

Figure 2. Relation between the membership in Configuration 3 and the level of articles.

Table A1. Configurations leading to high-tech exports, scientific and technical journal articles and patent applications, calibrating the conditions with the 5th, 50th and 95th percentiles of the distributions.

Outcome: HTExp
Configuration	Conf. 1a	Conf. 1b	Conf. 2a	Conf. 2b	Conf. 3a	Conf. 3b	Conf. 4a	Conf. 4b	Conf. 4c	Conf. 5
TourRec					⬤	⬤				⬤
RDExp	⬤	⬤			⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤
Trd			⬤	⬤			⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤
IDV	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤
UAI	⊗	⊗	⊗	⊗
C1	0.805		0.910	0.910	0.855		0.921	0.921	0.921	0.840
C2	0.476		0.442	0.442	0.407		0.478	0.478	0.478	0.478
C3	0.0279		0.0209	0.0209	0.0265		0.0244	0.0244	0.0244	0.124
Overall C1	0.758		Overall C2	0.735

Table

Outcome: Articles
Configuration	Conf. 1	Conf. 2	Conf. 3	Conf. 4
TourRec			⬤
RDExp	⬤		⬤	⬤
Trd		⬤		⬤
IDV	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤
UAI	⊗	⊗
C1	0.954	0.922	0.947	0.965
C2	0.566	0.450	0.454	0.503
C3	0.0683	0.0273	0.0371	0.0336
Overall C1	0.914	Overall C2	0.712

Table

Outcome: Patents
Configuration	Conf. 1	Conf. 2	Conf. 3	Conf. 4
TourRec			⬤
RDExp	⬤		⬤	⬤
Trd		⬤		⬤
IDV	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤
UAI	⊗	⊗
C1	0.855	0.827	0.911	0.875
C2	0.599	0.476	0.514	0.538
C3	0.0574	0.0157	0.0479	0.0223
Overall C1	0.806	Overall C2	0.741

Note: C1: Consistency; C2: Coverage; C3: Unique coverage. HTExp: High-tech exports; TourRec: International tourism receipts; RDExp: R&D expenditure; Trd: Trade; IDV: Individualism; UAI: Uncertainty avoidance. Black circles indicate the presence of a condition; crossed-out circles indicate the absence of a condition; blank spaces indicate “don’t care”; large circles indicate core conditions; small circles indicate peripheral conditions.

Table A2. Configurations leading to high-tech exports, scientific and technical journal articles, and patent applications, calibrating the conditions with the 15th, 50th, and 85th percentiles of the distributions.

Outcome: HTExp
Configuration	Conf. 1	Conf. 2a	Conf. 2b	Conf. 3	Conf. 4	Conf. 5
TourRec				⬤		⬤
RDExp	⬤			⬤	⬤
Trd		⬤	⬤		⬤	⬤
IDV	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤
UAI	⊗	⊗	⊗			⊗
C1	0.768	0.883	0.883	0.809	0.906	0.926
C2	0.411	0.371	0.371	0.331	0.415	0.265
C3	0.0290	0.0253	0.0253	0.0365	0.0324	0.0601
Overall C1	0.762	Overall C2	0.636

Table

Outcome: Articles
Configuration	Conf. 1	Conf. 2	Conf. 3	Conf. 4
TourRec			⬤
RDExp	⬤		⬤	⬤
Trd		⬤		⬤
IDV	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤
UAI	⊗	⊗
C1	0.965	0.920	0.962	0.973
C2	0.524	0.391	0.399	0.452
C3	0.0719	0.0370	0.0520	0.0455
Overall C1	0.916	Overall C2	0.710

Table

Outcome: Patents
Configuration	Conf. 1	Conf. 2	Conf. 3	Conf. 4
TourRec			⬤
RDExp	⬤		⬤	⬤
Trd		⬤		⬤
IDV	⬤	⬤	⬤	⬤
UAI	⊗	⊗
C1	0.915	0.823	0.920	0.884
C2	0.498	0.351	0.382	0.412
C3	0.0754	0.0209	0.0552	0.0267
Overall C1	0.844	Overall C2	0.655

Note: C1: Consistency; C2: Coverage; C3: Unique coverage. HTExp: High-tech exports; TourRec: International tourism receipts; RDExp: R&D expenditure; Trd: Trade; IDV: Individualism; UAI: Uncertainty avoidance. Black circles indicate the presence of a condition; crossed-out circles indicate the absence of a condition; blank spaces indicate “don’t care”; large circles indicate core conditions; small circles indicate peripheral conditions.