Tillyian process without a Tillyian effect: criminalised economies and state-building in the Colombian conflict

Figures & data

Table 1. Main changes in the regulations on illegal drugs in Colombia (1998–2017)

Year	Decree/Law/Resolution	Description
1998	Plan Nacional de Lucha contra las Drogas: 1998–2002	Creation of the Illicit Crop Eradication Programme through aerial spraying with the herbicide Glyphosate – PECIG
2000	Ley 599 de 2000	It subsumed all the crimes found in the National Narcotics Statute and increased the penalties for all of them.
2003	Resolución 013 de 2003	The Environmental Management Plan (WFP) is issued and the UN is entrusted with the creation of the Integrated Monitoring System for Illicit Crops (SIMCI).
2003	Resolución 1054 de 2003	The management of the PECIG is no longer with the Ministry for Environment and is passed to other government bodies, including the Ministry for Justice and the National Police.
2004	Ley 890 de 2004	It increases penalties for all crimes. Reform of the Penal Code
2006	Resolución No. 015 del 2005	It allowed fumigations in National Parks
2015	Resolución 006 de 2015	Aerial fumigations (PECIG) are suspended.
2016	Ley 1787 de 2016	It creates the regulatory framework to cannabis derivatives for medicinal and therapeutic purposes.
2016	Resolución 009 de 2016	The execution of terrestrial fumigation was authorized -the Illicit Crop Eradication Programme through terrestrial spraying with Glyphosate (PECAT).
2016	Ley 1801 de 2016	Harsher measures related to the transport and consumption of drugs in public space.
2017	Resolución No. 01 de 2017	PECAT is authorized throughout the national territory.

Table 2. Main changes in the mining regulations in Colombia (2001–2017)

Year	Decree/Law/Resolution	Description
2001	Decreto 70 de 2001	Re-structures the Ministry of Mines and Energy
2001	Ley 685 de 2001 (Mining Code)	This code established the same regulations for small and big-scale operations, while the State incentivised private investments in export-enclave mining and de-incentivised public mining.
2003	Decreto 520 de 2003	Dissolution, liquidation and de-investment in the public coal and oil sectors.
2004	Decreto 254 de 2004	Dissolution of Minercol Ltda- Public mining company.
2010	Ley 1382 de 2010	Modifies the Mining Code, making licenses and environmental impact studies, more flexible for big-scale operations.
2010	Decreto 2820 de 2010	The contributions of local communities with respect to environmental impact studies, will be used ‘when they are considered pertinent’ for mining projects, and prior consultation, will be carried out ‘in the cases in which it is required’.
2011	Decreto 4134 de 2011	Creates the National Mining Agency (ANM), an autonomous public body within the Ministry of Mining and Energy
2011	Ley 1450 de 2011	Harsher measures against illegal mining and stricter regulation of the gold market according to legal requirements.
2012	Decreto 2261 de 2012	Tightened control over the import of machinery and inputs to be used in gold mining.
2012	Decreto 2637 de 2012	All gold in the market required to be from sources with mining titles listed in a unique registered of mining merchants (RUCOM).
2013	Resolución 0341 de 2013	Big-scale mining operations producing for external markets are declared of ‘national interest’, and given priority above social or environmental regulations.
2013	Ley 1658 de 2013	Further restrictions on the use of mining inputs mainly used in small and medium scale mining.
2015	Decreto 276 de 2015	Further modifications to the RUCOM system.
2015	Ley 1753 de 2015	Stricter definition of small and medium-scale mining, making difficult to comply with legal requirements.
2016	Decreto 2133 de 2016	Further restrictions to the import and sale of inputs needed in small and medium-scale mining (mercury)
2017	Resolución 40,103 de 2017	Establishes the top production for subsistence mining.
2017	Decreto 1102 de 2017	Further legal requirements to engage in mining and commercialisation of minerals, targeting small and medium-scale producers.

Figure 1. The model of expansion of the agrarian frontier and land accumulation in Colombia.