Unbalanced or Absent: Assessing Indigenous Representation in Interpretive Materials at Government Administered Heritage Sites in Cascadia and Hawai‘i

Figures & data

Table 1. Quantitative results of interpretive content analysis.

Interpretive content analysis finding	Theme	Sub-theme	Sub-theme definition	Frequency
Controlled Historical Narrative	Fixed Narrative Categories (N = 731)*	Essentialized Indigenous Peoples	Discussion of Indigenous peoples as ahistoric and unchanging	35.3%
		Non-Indigenous History	Colonizer story of history devoid of Indigenous peoples	28.7%
		Settler-Colonial Contact History	Both positive and neutral experiences of Euro-Americans and Indigenous peoples in contact-era events	27.9%
		Nature Largely Devoid of Culture	Discussions of nature and geology which largely ignores human and cultural interactions with the environment	26.5%
Absence of Shared Authority	Type of Voice (N = 731)	Narrative Voice	A general, omniscient style of communication that does not indicate a specific group or person as the communicator	76.1%
		Management & Park Voice	Primary voice is from a management, site, or park communicator and the content is coming directly from a management or park perspective	14.9%
		Euro-American Voice	Primary voice is from a Euro-American communicator and the content is coming directly from a Euro-American perspective, person, or group	5.1%
		Indigenous Voice	Primary voice is from an Indigenous communicator and the content is coming directly from an Indigenous perspective, person, or group	4.5%
	Cited and Quoted People (N = 440)	Euro-Americans	Instances in which a Euro-American is cited or referenced	46.4%
		Scientists/Historians/etc.	Instances in which a scientist, historian, book, newspaper, etc is cited or referenced	23.2%
		Indigenous Peoples	Instances in which an Indigenous person is cited or referenced**	22.1%
		Traditional Stories	Instances in which traditional Indigenous stories are referenced or quoted	8.4%
	Named People in History (N = 839)**	Named Euro-American Person in History	Each instance that a Euro-American person is named in the telling of history	65.6%
		Named Indigenous Person in History	Each instance that an Indigenous person is named in the telling of history***	34.4%
Challenges in Representing and/or Integrating Different Ways of Knowing	Vocality (N = 731)	Univocal	The use of a single voice or perspective in an interpretive unit	75.4%
		Multivocal	The use or presence of multiple voices or perspectives in an interpretive unit	20.4%
	Negative Contact History (N = 731)	Representation of Negative Contact History	Interpretive content discussing negative aspects of history, such as disease, land destruction, reservations, war, and violence	12.0%

*Narrative categories may co-occur in an interpretive unit. As a result, there can be more than 100% representation of the narrative categories across the case study sites.

***This also includes a few instances of other people of color, since their experiences align more with Indigenous peoples.

Table 2. Interpretive content analysis sub-theme examples.

Finding/Sub-theme	Frequency	Text example of occurrence
Essentialized Indigenous Peoples	35.3%	The First People For over 11,000 years, Native Americans lived in this area, hunting, gathering and trading with nearby tribes for whatever they needed. By the time of contact with EuroAmericans, the Yakamas had adapted to the rhythms of the natural world. They fished in the Columbia, Yakima, and Klickitat rivers when the salmon were running, picked berries in the mountains during the late summer, dug roots and hunted game. They wove baskets of reeds and other natural fibers, made clothes form animal skins, crafted cord from sinew and bark, and shaped tools and weapons from rock, wood and bone. For all this bounty, the Yakamas offered prayers and first feasts of thanksgiving to the Creator and the spirits of the animals and plants. Through trading and intermarriage, a loose organization of Indian tribes extended through the Pacific Northwest. All that would change with the coming of EuroAmericans in the early 19th century. Come meet these creative and skilled people of the land. – Interpretive Sign, Fort Simcoe Historical State Park
Non-Indigenous History	28.7%	Grist Mill The first flour at Waiilatpu was little more than an oversized metal coffee grinder powered by a small channel diverted from the river. A second mill used 24” millstones enclosed in a small building, but a fire later destroyed it. Whitman’s third and last mill at this site turned 40” stones, but the walls, roof and granary were never completed. The restored millpond to your left powered the mill and fed the mission’s irrigation ditches. – Interpretive Sign, Whitman Mission National Historic Site
Settler-Colonial Contact History	27.9%	Indian Agency Cabin Built in 1862 this cabin was part of a thriving complex of agency buildings in this area of the Nez Perce reservation. The cabin was probably the residence of an agency employee. In period photographs, agency buildings stood in the midst of Nez Perce tipis and lodges – yet agents and Indians were separated by a cultural divide. From the time of its arrival the agency was responsible for protecting Nez Perce lands from encroaching miners and farmers. This cabin represents a government policy that failed. – Interpretive Sign, Nez Perce National Historical Park
Nature Largely Devoid of Culture	26.5%	Nene a fragile product of island evolution For this rare Hawaiian goose, nearby plants of a’ali’I, ohelo, kukaenene, and pukiawe provide food and shelter for survival. Once, tens of thousands of this dry land bird lived on the slopes of Mauna Loas. Their numbers plummeted as grazing of introduced goats and ranching destroyed nene habitat, mongooses and pigs destroyed eggs, and hunters harvested the unwary birds. By 1944 the entire population was less than 50 birds about half of these in captivity. Today, with pen-raising and release of birds, several hundred nene survive. As parkland is protected further from grazing animals, the habitat will continue to recover and allow nene to multiply and move from the brink of extinction. – Interpretive Sign, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park
Narrative Voice	76.1%	Under a New Watch, Fort Spokane Since 1960 Rebuilding the Past After many years of neglect, the National Park Service took over Fort Spokane in 1960. It restored the four remaining buildings – the Quartermaster Stable (pictured here), power magazine, reservoir, and the guardhouse. Interpretation Begins From the very beginning, providing information to visitors has been a part of the mission at Fort Spokane. In this photo visitors toured the Quartermaster Stable with a park ranger in 1964. Living History, Living Cultures Providing a place for multiple perspectives is an important role for Fort Spokane. This visitor center is the first National Park Service site to interpret the Indian Boarding School experience. Military reenactments at the park give a sense of what life was like at Fort Spokane during its years of active duty, 1880-1898. Cultural presentations by local Native Americans show how traditions change and cultures endure. – Interpretive Sign, Fort Spokane in Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area
Management and Park Voice	14.9%	Welcome to Pu‘ukohola Heiau National Historic Site Walk in the footsteps of the warriors and builders who were here 200 years ago as you visit one of the best-preserved and most significant heiau (temple) sites in Hawai‘i …  Visitors should bring water and protective clothing. There is limited shade and its very hot here …  This trail is the oldest of any designated historic trail in the U.S. National Trails System …  – Interpretive Sign, Pu‘ukohola Heiau National Historic Site
Euro-American Voice	5.1%	Narcissa Describes Journey “The fatigues of the long journey seemed to be forgotten in the exitement [sic] of being so near the close. Soon the Fort appeared in sight … ” September 1, 1836, at Fort Walla Walla “Heat excessive. Truly thought the Heavens over us were brass and the earth iron under our feet.” August 2, 1836, the day before reaching Fort Hall – Interpretive Sign, Whitman Mission National Historic Site
Indigenous Voice	4.5%	Meet Sipi My name is Sipi. I am 12 years old. I was taken from my home in 1901 when I was seven to attend Fort Spokane Indian Boarding School. I have spent five years here, only returning home for a few weeks each summer. I will tell you about my life at school. Watch for my picture. – Interpretive Sign, Fort Spokane in Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area
Euro-Americans Cited or Referenced	46.4%	A Boat Accident: May 14, 1805 As the Expedition traveled upriver, a sudden wind squall nearly capsized the white pirogue. The pirogue carried Charbonneau, Sacagawea, Jean Baptiste and several others as well as irreplaceable medicines, instruments, journalism and maps. Lewis later wrote, “the Indian woman to whom I ascribe equal fortitude and resolution, with any person onboard at the time of the accedent [sic], caught and preserved most of the light articles which were washed overboard.” – Interpretive Sign, Sacajawea Historical State Park
Scientists, Historians, etc. Cited or Referenced	23.2%	Survivor’s Stories are Revealed in Their Tracks Recent Findings Shed New Light on an Old Story Geologists and archaeologists have recorded 1,773 separate footprints. All together, they probably represent more than 400 individuals. Almost half of the Hawaiians who left their tracks were walking downhill into Ka‘ū. The others were headed uphill along the very trails they knew passed dangerously close to home of Pele. Analysis indicates that they were walking casually, not fleeing in fear. – Interpretive Sign, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park
Indigenous Peoples Cited or Referenced	22.1%	I learned the language, because it was taught to me by my grandmother who spoke the Indian language from morning till night. And it definitely was, it was a must to have a knowledge of language. Because you might meet an old, old man or woman on a trail. They would ask you, in our native tongue, ni•mí•pu• ni•mí•pu• ni•mí•pu• ni•mí•pu• [“Where does so and so live?] ni•mí•pu• ni•mí•pu• ni•mí•pu• [How far is it to the nest house?”] or, ni•mí•pu• ni•mí•pu• ni•mí•pu• ni•mí•pu• [“Where can I find water? I’m getting thirsty.”] See? Communication. But now you don’t have those problems nowadays. -Angus Wilson – Interpretive Sign, Nez Perce National Historical Park
Traditional Indigenous Stories	8.4%	“Killer Butterfly” From Nez Perce Oral Narratives Once again I will tell a short story, about Butterfly. Coyote went upriver. He saw and heard something as he went, and he turned around. There Butterfly was opening and closing herself. “Oh, what’s that.” Then he went toward her, and there was Butterfly, a good-looking Indian girl, and she flirted and giggled. Coyote fell for it, and then she put her arms around him, and suddenly closed in on him. Even though he struggled, she killed him …  – Interpretive Sign, Nez Perce National Historical Park
Named Euro-American Person in History	65.6%	The Outbreak Of War In 1855, several miners on their way to the Colville Gold Fields were murdered by irresponsible braves. Indian Agent Andrew J. Bolen, riding alone from the Dalles to investigate was seized and killed by another party of Indians. Kamiakin, Chief of the Yakimas [sic] was accused of complicity. Col. Haller marching from Fort Dalles with two companies of regulars to punish the murderers of Bolen was defeated by Indians in the Battle of Toppenish Creek in October of 1855. In November 1855, in an inclusive encounter at Union Fap (Twin Buttes) 20 miles northeast of here, Indians held off Major C. J. Rains’ command of Regular Volunteers until Rains outflanked the Indian position. – Interpretive Sign, Fort Simcoe Historical State Park
Named Indigenous Person in History	34.4%	Setting the Stage Long before the time of King Kamehameha I, a socio-political hierarchy, deeply rooted in spiritual beliefs, developed in Hawai‘i. This rigidly ordered class system gave power to those who had descended from the gods. A small number of ali‘i nui (high chiefs) controlled different parts of an island, a whole island, or several islands …  [Text followed by map of islands with the ruler’s image and name for each power center in the Hawaiian Islands c. 1778.] – Interpretive Sign, Pu‘ukoholā Heiau National Historic Site
Univocal	75.4%	Commerce on the Cowlitz The need for trade and reliable transportation in Washington Territory changed a corridor of commerce from a native trail to a major highway. Native trade was conducted along the Cowlitz trail, bringing goods between the Puget Sound and the Columbia River. The Cowlitz Tribe regulated the trade as it passed through their territory making them very rich and powerful. The Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) utilized the route as the easiest form of entry into southwestern Washington, moving furs between forts Vancouver and Nisqually. The trail was expanded as the fur trade declined in the late 1830s and transportation needs began to revolve around agriculture …  – Interpretive Sign, Fort Nisqually Living History Museum, Point Defiance Park
Multivocal	20.4%	Viewpoints In The Eyes of Science - Oncorhynchus Species Pacific salmon hatch in rivers and streams and migrate to the ocean where they spend most of their adult lives. When ready to reproduce, the adults navigate back to their home streams to spawn. Five of the species – Chinook, chum, coho, pink and sockeye – die after spawning. In contrast, the Atlantic salmon known to Lewis and Clark live to spawn again. First Observations - Salmon The Corps arrived on the Plateau near the end of fall spawning runs of Pacific salmon. Clark wrote, “I observe in assending [sic] great numbers of Salmon dead on the Shores, floating on the water and in the Bottoms which can be seen at the debth [sic] of 20 feet. the [sic] Cause of the emence [sic] numbers of dead Salmon I can’t account for … .” Unaware of the natural spawning cycle of Pacific salmon, they found great numbers of dead and dying salmon in the rivers disturbing and thought them unsafe to eat. A Spiritual Resource - Núsux̣̣̣ “To the Wanapum, the salmon is God given. The food is given to the Indian people, to maintain our life, to give us strength and to give us spiritual strength to our hearts and minds. The salmon is a creator given food and is important because of the way it comes in a cycle … As long as we take care of the salmon, and do what we were told for us to do, the salmon will keep coming. As long as the salmon does what he says he would do, the salmon will follow through with his original work. And this work is giving himself (the salmon) to the Indian people. This is the balance of nature for the Wanapum people.” -A Wanapum Elder – Interpretive Sign, Sacajawea Historical State Park
Negative Contact History	12.0%	A Time of Troubles The early 19th century marked the end to life as the Yakamas had known it. Fur traders began exploring the country, followed by missionaries, gold seekers and settlers. Tensions increased as settlers poured across the Oregon Trail, settling on the ancestral lands of the Yakamas and vying for the same resources. The newcomers brought disease, decimating the native peoples because they had no resistance. In 1853, Congress designated the Washington Territory and appointed Isaac I. Stevens as the first Governor. Because continued friction with the native peoples hampered achieving his goals, Stevens pursued treaties with the Northwest tribes. In 1855, he invited all the east side tribes to a meeting. There he negotiated treaties with the Yakama, Umatilla, Nez Perce, Walla Walla and Cayuse tribes, using threats of force to obtain signatures. These treaties created the Umatilla, Colville and Yakama reservations. In the end, the Yakamas were restricted to an area that included less than 7% of their ancestral lands. In return, they received a cash settlement and something they did not want or ask for – a different lifestyle. The tribes were told that they could live on their lands as before until the treaties were ratified, which did not happen until four years later. However, Stevens immediately sent word out that the land was open for settlement and mining, initiating a string of events that led to war. – Interpretive Sign, Fort Simcoe Historical State Park

Text examples are excerpts from signs and some text may have been excluded from examples for brevity.

Figure 1. Indigenous site name – Nez Perce National Historical Park. Note the Indigenous site name aligned with the Spalding site name. Photograph by Leah Rosenkranz.

Figure 2. Multiple perspectives interpretation – “Viewpoints,” Sacajawea Historical State Park. Note the three different perspectives provided from the views of the Hidatsa, historians, and the Shoshone. Photograph by Leah Rosenkranz.

Figure 3. Visitor reflections – Fort Spokane, Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area. Note the feelings expressed in the comments, demonstrating visitors’ perspectives on the site after being exposed to the difficult history of the site and boarding school. Photograph by Leah Rosenkranz.

Table 3. Lessons Learned and Recommendations for Increasing Indigenous Representation, Voice, and Authority in Heritage Site Interpretive Materials.

Lessons Learned and Recommendations for Increasing Indigenous Representation, Voice, and Authority in Heritage Site Interpretive Materials
Include Indigenous names of sites to emphasize Indigenous cultural connections and presence at the site. Consider including a first person (e.g., We …) land recognition or welcome statement that is culturally appropriate that has been discussed with or developed by culturally affiliated Tribal Nations and Indigenous populations. This could be in the form of statements at the beginning of live interpretive programs and tours or on entrance signs. See Figure 1, for example.
Include welcome statements from Indigenous population at sites. These can be included in interpretive displays and in interpretive materials. These first person messages should be directly from an Indigenous group or person and if possible, should cite those people or groups.
Demonstrate the living cultural presence of Indigenous people at the site. Portray contemporary peoples and events in discussions of topics such as living Indigenous populations and groups, recent activities at sites and elsewhere, and current Indigenous practices. Use contemporary imagery of Indigenous populations with color photos and contemporary people. Use Indigenous language beyond place, plant, and animal names to emphasize Indigenous presence and culture.
Incorporate Indigenous voice throughout interpretation. Share authority with Indigenous populations. Cite, quote, and reference Indigenous people and groups, past and present. Name Indigenous peoples now and in history.
Recognize the heterogeneity of Indigenous peoples and their voices, both between and within Indigenous communities. Avoid over generalizing Indigenous voice. It is not just about including Indigenous and non-Indigenous voices but also a variety of Indigenous voices with appropriate context.
Make interpretation multivocal by including the voices of many. Provide multiple perspectives and viewpoints throughout interpretation. This can be side-by-side, allowing visitors to make conclusions for themselves. Recognize that there are multiple views and understandings of the past and present. Enter into conversations with this understanding.
Extend interpretation beyond the confines of a historic structure onsite or Euro-American history and timelines. When possible, timelines should extend from time immemorial through the present and into the future. Link nature and the landscape with the story of the site, culture, and people. Take time to fully learn and understand the Indigenous populations’ relationships with the site and landscape, which is often larger than external administrative boundaries.
Create programs and opportunities for Indigenous people to share their knowledge, stories, and experiences, intergenerationally, internally and externally. Connect interested visitors with additional resources. Consider referring interested visitors to Indigenous authors’ books, Tribal websites, and Indigenous cultural education institutions.
Discuss difficult history and tell what really occurred at a heritage site. Do not shy away from the difficult aspects of history. Create space for reflection and thought for interpretation that is challenging or difficult. Consider ideas such as a space for quiet reflection and decompression or a place for visitors to record their thoughts and reflections.