The pandemic coping scale – validity and reliability of a brief measure of coping during a pandemic

Figures & data

Figure 1. Factor loadings of Model 1 consisting of four first-order factors.

Figure 2. Factor loadings of Model 2 consisting of four first-order factors and a second-order general factor.

Table 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of the two study samples.

	EFA, n = 1144		CFA, n = 1172
Variable	M	SD	M	SD
Age	41.17	12.79	41.19	13.13
Gender	n	%	n	%
Female	811	70.9	813	69.4
Male	327	28.6	355	30.3
Other	6	0.52	4	0.34
Education level
6–9 years of schooling	4	0.35	3	0.26
10–13 years of schooling	146	12.8	138	11.8
Completed vocational studies	402	35.1	416	35.5
Completed studies	551	48.2	572	48.8
Doctorate	41	3.58	43	3.67
Average monthly household income^a,b
<1000 Euro	108	9.85	116	10.3
1000 to <2000 Euro	154	14.1	149	13.2
2000 to <3000 Euro	306	27.9	287	25.5
3000 to <5000 Euro	343	31.3	348	30.9
≥ 5000 Euro	185	16.9	225	20.0
Community
Large City	666	58.2	687	58.6
Small city or town	247	21.6	250	21.3
Suburb near a large city	135	11.8	132	11.3
Rural area	96	8.39	103	8.79
Risk for severe or life-threatening COVID-19 symptoms
Yes	251	21.9	253	21.6
No	893	78.1	919	78.4
Mental disorder diagnosis
Yes (recovered)	176	15.4	178	15.2
Yes (currently affected)	92	8.04	94	8.02
No	876	76.6	900	76.8

^a EFA: Exploratory Factor Analysis: n = 1096.

^b CFA: Confirmatory Factor Analysis: n = 1125.

Table 2. Means, standard deviations and factor loadings for the items of the pandemic coping scale (Exploratory factor analysis, n = 1144).

Item	M	SD	Skewness	Kurtosis	Factor loadings
					Factor 1 ‘Healthy Lifestyle’	Factor 2 ‘Joyful Activities’	Factor 3 ‘Daily Structure’	Factor 4 ‘Prevention Adherence’
Item 3: Paying attention to a healthy diet	2.07	0.90	−0.65	−0.42	.60	−.11	−.08	.17
Item 4: Exercising or taking a walk	1.97	0.98	−0.42	−0.96	.52	.02	−.06	.01
Item 5: Paying attention to good sleeping habits	1.67	1.02	−2.68	7.33	.80	−.07	−.09	−.05
Item 6: Paying attention to take enough breaks	1.44	1.06	−1.56	1.73	.69	.17	.11	−.04
Item 7: I have been relaxing	0.84	1.01	−0.21	−1.05	.47	.20	.05	−.02
Item 8: Doing something useful	1.91	0.94	−0.21	−0.87	.09	.37	−.07	.09
Item 9: Doing something that I enjoy	1.94	0.88	0.08	−1.18	.10	.70	.04	−.09
Item 12: Spending a good time with loved ones/friends/pet	1.94	1.03	0.89	−0.41	.01	.40	−.13	−.05
Item 13: Spending a good time with loved ones/friends through digital media	1.79	0.94	−0.34	−0.83	−.01	.47	−.02	.16
Item 10: Structuring my day	1.90	0.97	−0.35	−0.93	.02	.09	−.85	−.02
Item 11: Paying attention to maintain my daily routine	1.95	.999	−0.45	−0.83	.03	.03	−.81	.01
Item 1: Following the recommendations to limit spread of coronavirus	2.82	.490	−0.51	−0.85	−.02	.06	.04	.62
Item 2: Informing myself about the current state of the pandemic	2.62	.668	−0.08	−1.05	.04	−.02	−.04	.52

Table 3. Global fit indices of the confirmatory factor analysis for Model 1 and Model 2 (Confirmatory factor analysis, n = 1172).

Global Fit Index	χ^2	df	p	normed χ^2	RMSA	p RMSA	RMSEA 90% CI	SRMR	TLI	CFI
Model 1	366.97	59	<.001	6.22	.067	<.001	.060–.073	.043	.902	.926
Model 2	373.33	61	<.001	6.12	.066	<.001	.060–.073	.043	.904	.925

Note: df: degrees of freedom; RMSEA: Root Mean Square Error of Approximation; CI: Confidence Interval; SRMR: Standardized Root Mean Residual; TLI: Tucker-Lewis Index; CFI: Comparative Fit Index.

Table

Item	M	SD	Skewness	Kurtosis
Item 1: Following the recommendations to limit spread of coronavirus	1.96	0.98	−0.51	−0.85
Item 2: Informing myself about the current state of the pandemic	1.77	0.94	−0.08	−1.05
Item 3: Paying attention to a healthy diet	2.02	0.91	−0.65	−0.42
Item 4: Exercising or taking a walk	1.98	0.95	−0.42	−0.96
Item 5: Paying attention to good sleeping habits	2.78	0.54	−2.68	7.33
Item 6: Paying attention to take enough breaks	2.61	0.65	−1.56	1.73
Item 7: I have been relaxing	1.66	1.01	−0.21	−1.05
Item 8: Doing something useful	1.89	0.87	−0.21	−0.87
Item 9: Doing something that I enjoy	1.40	1.04	0.08	−1.18
Item 10: Structuring my day	1.86	0.99	−0.35	−0.93
Item 11: Paying attention to maintain my daily routine	1.93	0.96	−0.45	−0.83
Item 12: Spending a good time with loved ones/friends/pet	0.84	1.00	0.89	−0.41
Item 13: Spending a good time with loved ones/friends through digital media	1.91	0.91	−0.34	−0.83

Table

Scale	Factor loading		Communality
	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2
Healthy Lifestyle (HL)
Item 5	.78	.78	.60	.60
Item 6	.71	.71	.50	.50
Item 3	.61	.61	.38	.38
Item 4	.60	.60	.36	.36
Item 7	.56	.56	.31	.31
Joyful Activities (JA)
Item 9	.66	.65	.44	.43
Item 13	.50	.51	.25	.26
Item 12	.48	.48	.23	.23
Item 8	.48	.48	.23	.24
Daily Structure (DS)
Item 10	.95	.95	.91	.91
Item 11	.78	.79	.62	.62
Prevention Adherence (PA)
Item 1	.58	.59	.33	.35
Item 2	.61	.59	.37	.35
Pandemic Coping (PC)
Healthy Lifestyle	–	.87	–	–
Joyful Activities	–	.85	–	–
Daily Structure	–	.67	–	–
Prevention Adherence	–	.36	–	–

Table

(Sub-)Scale	FR^a	AVE^a	Discriminant from (AVE>R^2)^b	Coefficient of Determination (R^2)
				HL	JA	DS	PA
Healthy Lifestyle (HL)	.79	.43	DS, PA	1	.54	.33	.12
Joyful Activities (JA)	.61	.29	PA	.54	1	.33	.05
Daily Structure (DS)	.86	.76	HL, JA, PA	.33	.33	1	.07
Prevention Adherence (PA)	.52	.35	HL, JA, DS	.12	.05	.07	1
Pandemic Coping (PC)	.90	.42	–	–	–	–	–

Note: FR: Factor reliability; AVE: Average Variance Extracted; HL: Healthy Lifestyle; JA: Joyful Activities; DS: Daily Structure; PA: Prevention Adherence; PC: Pandemic Coping.

^a Results for the first-order factors were the same for Model 1 and Model 2.

^b Fornell-Larcker criterion (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Table

Scale	Items (n)	M	SD	Cronbach’s α	Item discrimination (rit)			Item difficulty (P)
					M	Min	Max	M	Min	Max
Healthy Lifestyle	5	7.90	3.61	.79	.56	.49	.65	.53	.28	.67
Joyful Activities	4	7.53	2.49	.60	.38	.33	.47	.63	.59	.65
Daily Structure	2	3.79	1.80	.86^a	.75	.75	.75	.63	.62	.64
Prevention Adherence	2	5.39	0.98	.52^a	.35	.35	.35	.90	.87	.93
Pandemic Coping	13	24.61	6.75	.83	.46	.21	.64	.63	.28	.93

Note: r_it: corrected item-total correlation.

^a The Spearman Brown coefficient was used as recommended for 2-scale items.

Appendix 5. Intercorrelations between the Pandemic Coping Scale Subscales and the Brief-COPE Subscales, and WHO-5, PHQ-9 and GAD-2 (n = 1172)

Subscale	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18	19	20
Pandemic Coping (PCS)
1 Healthy lifestyle	–
2 Joyful activities	.453**	–
3 Daily structure	.448**	.386**	–
4 Prevention Adherence	.217**	.174**	.191**	–
Coping (Brief-COPE)
5 Active Coping	.408**	.367**	.315**	.156**	–
6 Planning	.227**	.220**	.213**	.195**	.518**	–
7 Positive Reframing	.322**	.331**	.279**	.169**	.418**	.401**	–
8 Acceptance	.145**	.210**	.161**	.141**	.210**	.243**	.436**	–
9 Humor	.057**	.160**	.085**	−.018	.172**	.179**	.382**	.330**	–
10 Religion	.191**	.145**	.116**	.039	.174**	.180**	.166**	.083**	.011	–
11 Using emot. support	.259**	.286**	.151**	.161**	.356**	.391**	.307**	.162**	.161**	.158**	–
12 Using instr. support	.193**	.176**	.089**	.089**	.343**	.420**	.226**	.068**	.080**	.203**	.607**	–
13 Self-Distraction	.293**	.351**	.255**	.127**	.461**	.398**	.338**	.230**	.208**	.138**	.356**	.298**	–
14 Denial	.012	−.030	−.067**	−.062**	.040	.106**	−.126**	−.204**	−.049*	.038**	.062**	.142**	.101**	–
15 Venting	.120**	.110**	.027	.074**	.208**	.308**	.143**	.072**	.046*	.118**	.432**	.521**	.218**	.239**	–
16 Substance Use	−.136**	−.085**	−.102**	−.017	−.007	.087**	−.060**	−.066**	.073**	.007	.041	.065**	.082**	.203**	.091**	–
17 Behav. Disengagm.	−.110**	−.110**	−.141**	−.197**	−.087**	−.055**	−.054*	.036	.065**	.004	−.026	−.009	.024	.218**	.093**	.149**	–
18 Self-blame	−.062**	−.065**	−.082**	.023	.086**	.240**	.000	−.019	.007	.072**	.155**	.264**	.073**	.216**	.236**	.169**	.188**	–
19 Wellbeing (WHO-5)	.345**	.344**	.323**	.035	.183**	−.005	.317**	.215**	.213**	.036	.035	−.070**	.067**	−.198**	−.105**	−.219**	−.191**	−.306**	–
20 Depression (PHQ-9)	−.235**	−.239**	−.272**	.007	−.074**	.157**	−.173**	−.107**	−.099**	.029	.056**	.157**	.050*	.241**	.188**	.293**	.255**	.488**	−.715**	–
21 Anxiety (GAD-2)	−.116**	−.116**	−.172**	.019	.000	.194**	−.154**	−.132**	−.123**	.089**	.104**	.205**	.080**	.253**	.231**	.245**	.216**	.414**	−.587**	.743**

Note: PCS: Pandemic Coping Scale; Brief-COPE: Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced Inventory; WHO-5: total score of the WHO-5 Wellbeing Index; PHQ-9: total score of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9; GAD-2: total score of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder self-report screening Scale.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Table

	I have not been doing this at all	I’ve been doing this a little bit	I’ve been doing this a medium amount	I’ve been doing this a lot
1. I have been informing myself about the current state of the pandemic by reliable sources.
2. I have been paying attention to maintain my daily routine.
3. I have been exercising or taking a walk.
4. I have been following the recommendations to limit the spread of the coronavirus, e.g. frequent hand washing, reduction of social contacts.
5. I have been paying attention to good sleeping habits.
6. I have been spending a good time with loved ones, friends, or my pet.
7. I have been paying attention to a healthy diet.
8. I have been doing something useful, e.g. tidying up or cleaning.
9. I have been doing something that I enjoy.
10. I have been structuring my day.
11. I have been spending a good time with loved ones or friends by digital media, e.g. phone or internet.
12. I have been paying attention to take enough breaks.
13. I have been relaxing, e.g. through a breathing exercise or relaxing music.

Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50.

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Data availability statement

Data are available upon reasonable request from the first author.