Traditional and modern eating in older adults: a comparison between an urban and rural sample from Gujarat, Western India

Figures & data

Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the sample and differences between the urban and rural sample.

	Overall sample (n = 120)	Urban sample (n = 60)	Rural sample (n = 60)	χ^2 or Welch’s t	df	p	d^a or Phi^b
Number of women (%)	66 (55%)	30	36	1.21	1	.271	0.10^b
Number of men (%)	54 (45%)	30	24
Mean age in years (SD; range)	67.93 (6.42; 60-87)	69.43 (7.00; 60-87)	66.43 (5.45; 60-87)	2.62	111.36	.010	0.48^a
Religion (n; %)	Hindu: 105 (87%) Muslim: 13 (11%) Jain: 2 (2%)	Hindu: 58 (97%) Jain: 2 (3%)	Hindu: 47 (78%) Muslim: 13 (22%)	16.15	2	<.001	0.37^b
Caste membership among Hindus and Jains (n; %)	Lower caste: 27 (26%) Higher caste: 77 (74%)	Lower caste: 9 (16%) Higher caste: 48 (84%)	Lower caste: 18 (38%) Higher caste: 29 (62%)	6.79	1	.009	0.26^b
Mean SES (SD; range)	4.66 (1.81; 1-9)	5.82 (1.49; 4-9)	3.50 (1.30; 1-5)	9.09	118	<.001	1.66^a
Education (n; %)	Below primary: 23 (19%) Primary: 41 (34%) Secondary: 29 (24%) Tertiary: 27 (23%)	Below primary: 1 (2%) Primary: 13 (22%) Secondary: 19 (32%) Tertiary: 27 (45%)	Below primary: 22 (37%) Primary: 28 (47%) Secondary: 10 (17%) Tertiary: 0 (0%)	55.46	3	<.001	0.67^b

Note. SES, socio-economic status. Caste membership was assessed with an open-ended question and afterwards categorized into lower and higher castes. The classification of scheduled castes and tribes in Vadodara district from 2011 census was referred for verification. SES was measured with a question adapted from the Cantril ladder where people are asked to rate where they stand in the society in their country from 1 (people with least money, education, and worst jobs) to 9 (people with most money, education, and best jobs). Education as classified by the International Standard Classification of Education 2011 (OECD, 2015).

Table 2. Modern eating items and results of linear regressions with modern eating items as dependent variable and urban-rural as independent variable (n = 120).

Item	B^a	SE	t	p	η^2p
1. Using plastic utensils while eating (e.g. plastic forks) (A)	−0.22	0.10	−2.24	.027^b	.041
2. Eating foods from other countries’ cuisines (TO)	−0.38	0.09	−4.30	<.001	.135
3. Drinking soft drinks (e.g. cola) during the main meal (M)	−0.38	0.09	−4.34	<.001	.138
4. Eating food from vending machines (e.g. chips) (SO)	−0.58	0.14	−4.32	<.001	.136
5. Eating foods that are imported from all over the world (SO)	−0.47	0.11	−4.42	<.001	.142
6. Eating frozen meals (Proc)	−0.57	0.12	−4.66	<.001	.155
7. Consuming diet drinks or foods (I)	−0.50	0.14	−3.48	.001	.093
8. Eating while working (SA)	0.33	0.12	2.82	.006	.063
9. Buying foods in supermarkets or chain stores (SO)	−0.52	0.12	−4.37	<.001	.139
10. Using time-saving food preparation equipment such as microwave ovens (Prep)	−0.88	0.18	−5.00	<.001	.175
11. Eating take-away or delivered meals (Prep)	−0.25	0.17	−1.47	.143	.018
12. Eating fast food (e.g. hamburgers) (Proc)	−0.38	0.17	−2.21	.029^b	.040
13. Eating alone outside of home (Soc)	−0.40	0.17	−2.35	.020	.045
14. Eating pizza (TO)	−1.00	0.19	−5.40	<.001	.198
15. Consuming artificial sweeteners (e.g. aspartame in diet drinks, to sweeten coffee or tea) (I)	−0.42	0.22	−1.90	.060	.030
16. Eating ready-to-eat foods (e.g. premade sandwiches) (Prep)	−0.58	0.18	−3.23	.002	.081
17. Eating at buffet or all-you-can-eat restaurants (SA)	−0.62	0.13	−4.92	<.001	.170
18. Eating while being conscious of calorie content or nutritional value (C)	−0.77	0.23	−3.35	.001	.087
19. Eating foods that are industrially mass produced (Proc)	−0.57	0.21	−2.70	.008	.058
20. Throwing away food (A)	0.02	0.17	0.10	.924	.000
21. Drinking soft drinks (e.g. cola) (Proc)	0.02	0.20	0.08	.934	.000
22. Eating while walking/ traveling from one place to another (SA)	−0.23	0.15	−1.59	.116	.021
23. Being concerned about eating too much (C)	−0.25	0.20	−1.27	.208	.013
24. Eating out of home (SA)	−0.61	0.17	−3.63	<.001	.101
25. Eating foods that are recently produced; i.e. new foods that were not eaten previously (before 1940) (TO)	0.35	0.21	1.66	.101	.023
26. Eating industrially processed foods (e.g. chips, ready-made meals) (Proc)	−0.17	0.26	−0.63	.528	.003
27. Doing something else while eating (e.g. watching television) (A)	−0.90	0.44	−2.05	.042^b	.035
28. Choosing food according to individual preferences rather than social norms (Soc)	−0.73	0.30	−2.41	.017^b	.047
29. Food is readily available wherever I am during the day (e.g. when going to work). (SO)	−0.50	0.14	−3.71	<.001	.104
30. All my foodstuff is purchased (as opposed to grown or raised by myself). (SO)	0.15	0.25	0.59	.554	.003

Note. Related subdimensions are written in parentheses after items. ^aPositive values indicate larger means for the rural participants. ^bPlease note that the differences became non-significant when including age or religion in the regressions.

Abbreviations: TO, Temporal Origin; I, Ingredients; Soc, Social Aspects; SA, Spatial Aspects; SO, Spatial Origin; Proc, Processing; C, Concerns; Prep, Preparation; A, Appreciation; M, Meals.

Table 3. Traditional eating items and results of linear regressions with traditional eating items as dependent variable and urban-rural as independent variable (n = 120).

Item	B^a	SE	t	p	η^2p
1. Drinking water (I)	−0.08	0.08	−1.00	.319	.008
2. Eating grains (e.g. wheat, rice, corn) and grain products (e.g. bread) (I)	−0.05	0.14	−0.36	.716	.001
3. Eating vegetables (I)	0.00	0.16	0.00	1.00	.000
4. Eating legumes (e.g. beans, lentils) (I)	0.00	0.17	0.00	1.00	.000
5. Eating meals cooked or prepared at home (Prep)	−0.28	0.08	−3.36	.001	.087
6. In my family, I eat the main meal at home at the same time as the others. (TA)	0.02	0.20	0.08	.934	.000
7. Eating at home (SA)	−0.30	0.10	−2.96	.004	.069
8. At home, women do all the cooking. (Prep)	0.48	0.17	2.86	.005	.065
9. Eating basic foods like corn or rice (I)	−0.48	0.19	−2.62	.010	.055
10. When eating with other people at home: eating the same foods as the others (Soc)	−0.03	0.23	−0.15	.884	.000
11. Eating fruits (I)	−0.57	0.26	−2.17	.032	.038
12. Eating seasonal foods (SO)	−0.62	0.10	−5.99	<.001	.233
13. Eating dishes that are typical for the West of India (around Vadodara, Gujarat) (TO)	−0.40	0.15	−2.65	.009	.056
14. Eating dairy products (e.g. milk, cheese, yoghurt) (I)	−1.28	0.17	−7.49	<.001	.322
15. Eating at fixed mealtimes (TA)	−0.32	0.22	−1.43	.156	.017
16. Eating foods that are produced in the region (SO)	−1.60	0.22	−7.23	<.001	.307
17. I eat a large variety of fruits and vegetables. (V)	−0.72	0.18	−4.04	<.001	.121
18. Larger family events center on meals (Soc)	−0.93	0.23	−4.02	<.001	.121
19. I eat in a way that shows respect for the others. (A)	−1.37	0.25	−5.55	<.001	.207
20. I appreciate food. (A)	−0.50	0.17	−3.02	.003	.072
21. I know how to cook. (Prep)	0.37	0.44	0.84	.402	.006
22. Eating while being served food by others (Soc)	2.02	0.27	7.45	<.001	.320
23. Eating food that has been prepared in grandmother’s way (Prep)	1.22	0.24	5.03	<.001	.176
24. Men get preferential treatment over women at my mealtimes. (Soc)	0.65	0.31	2.13	.035	.037
25. Eating meals that end with a sweet dessert (M)	−0.07	0.21	−0.33	.743	.001
26. Taking time preparing food (Prep)	−0.55	0.19	−2.89	.005	.066
27. Eating eggs (I)	0.92	0.26	3.55	.001^b	.097

Note. Related subdimensions are written in parentheses after items. ^aPositive values indicate larger means for the rural participants. ^bPlease note that the difference became non-significant when including religion in the regression.

Abbreviations: TO, Temporal Origin; I, Ingredients; Soc, Social Aspects; SA, Spatial Aspects; TA, Temporal Aspects; SO, Spatial Origin; V, Variability; Prep, Preparation; A, Appreciation; M, Meals.

Figure 1. Percentage of participants who responded to show the modern eating behaviors from never to always for the urban and rural samples (n = 120). Note. Items are sorted by their overall mean in ascending order. Full item names are displayed in Table 2. * p < .05; ** p  < .01; *** p  < .001.

Figure 2. Percentage of participants who responded to show the traditional eating behaviors from never to always for the urban and rural samples (n = 120). Note. Items are sorted by their overall mean in descending order. Full item names are displayed in Table 3. * p < .05; ** p  < .01; *** p  < .001.

OECD, European Union, UNESCO Institute for Statistics,. (2015). ISCED 2011 operational manual: Guidelines for classifying national education programmes and related qualifications. OECD Publishing.

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Data availability

Data are available upon request from the lead author.