A review of plant leaf fungal diseases and its environment speciation

Figures & data

Figure 1. Characteristics of environment speciation.

Figure 2. Disease control of plant leaf spot.

Figure 3. An overview of plant leaf diseases, its microbial and environmental interaction.

Table 1. Common leaf diseases caused via pathogenic fungi with its symptoms.

Year	Region	Plant	Causal agent	Disease	Symptoms	References
2004	Rajasthan and Sorghum, India	Maize	Perenosclerospora sorghi, Perenosclerospora heteropogoni	Downy mildew	Pale yellow to whitish discolorations on the leaf blade. Tassels may be deformed, and ears may be aborted.	[51]
2005	Western Turkey	Pear	Erwinia amylovora	Fire blight	First leafs turn yellow-brown and after that all are dying.	[52]
2007	New York	Carrot cultivars	Alternaria dauci and Cercospora carotae	Leaf blight	Brownish spotting on leaf.	[15]
2008	Belle Glade, USA	Celery	Cercospora apiiFres.	Early blight	Light-brown spots somewhat circular or slightly bony. Spots might be oily look with or with no nearby yellow coronas.	[53]
2009	Japan	Coronus Florida	Anamorphic fungi	Leaf blight	Dead and brown blotches on leafs.	[54]
2010	Egypt	Potato	Phytophthora infestans	Late blight	Pale green spots.	[55]
2011	France	Pear	Erwinia amylovora	Fire blight	First leafs turn yellow-brown and after that all are dying.	[56]
2011	Switzerland	Pea and apple	Erwinia amylovora	Fire blight	Red-brown to black streaking may be apparent in wood just under the bark.	[57]
2011	Parana Southern brazil	Soybean	Peronospora menshurica	Downy mildew	Upper (light green spots) and lower (greyish/beige downy tufts) on leaf surface.	[10]
2012	Germany	Apple	Erwinia amylovora	Fire blight	Red brown or black, may be outward in wood.	[21]
2012	Spain	Grapevine	Plasmopara viticola	Downy mildew	Lesions on leafs are angular, yellowish, sometimes oily, and located between the veins.	[58]
2013	Temanggung	Sengon	Uromycladium tepperianum	Gall rust	It starts with local swelling (tumefaction).	[59]
2013	North eastern India	Capsicum assamicum	CercosporaFresen	Leaf spot	Round or oblong spots occur; first water soaked and later turn tan with a dark marginal ring.	[60]
2013	France	Apple	Erwinia amylovora	Fire blight	The scorched appearance of plant leafs.	[61]
2014	Australasia and Southeast Asia	Grapevine	P. montana	Leaf rust	Angular brown spots on the topside of the leaf.	[62]
2015	USA	Tomato	Phytophthora infestans	Late blight	Pale green spots.	[63]
2015	Sanandaj, Iran	Chickpea	Fusarium oxysporum	Fusarium wilt	Grayish-green chlorosis, typically affecting lower leafs first and extending up the plant.	[64]
2015	Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Maharashtra, India	Tomato	Alternaria solani	Early blight	On leafs, circular lesions are produced. Inside these lesions turn dark, concentric rings could be seen.	[25]
2015	India	Pearl millet	Sclerospora graminicola	Downy mildew	Pale color, broad streaks spreading from bottom to top of leafs. Advancement of disease, the leaf streaks turn brown and leafs become shredded longitudinally.	[65]
2016	Egypt	Wheat	Puccinia triticina Eriks	Leaf rust	Rusty colored pustules erupting through on surface.	[66]
2016	Yunnan China	Pea	Erysiphe pisi D.C.	Powdery mildew	Brownish spots on leafs.	[67]
2016	Shandong, China	Apple	Glomerella cingulata	Leaf spot	Pale yellow, olive green and dark velvety spots.	[68]
2016	Sweden	Potato	Oomycete Phytophthora infestans	Late blight	Pale green spots.	[24]
2016	Hungary	Potato	Phytophthora infestans	Late blight	Pale green spots.	[69]
2016	Delhi, India	Maize	Bipolaris maydis (Nisik)	Leaf blight	In maize include tan, elongated lesions between veins with light brown to brown borders.	[70]
2016	Syngenta, Basel, Switzerland	Sweet Potato	Alternaria solani	Early blight	Leafs start to exhibit small irregular dark brown spots on the lowest part.	[71]
2017	Georgia, USA	Soybean	Cercospora sojina	Leaf spot	Dark brown centers with red or dark reddish margins.	[72]
2017	Mumbai, India	Tomato	Fusarium oxysporum	Fusarium wilt	Yellowing and wilting of lower leafs.	[73]
2017	Islamabad, Pakistan	Southern corn	Cochliobolus heterostrophus	Leaf blight	Southern corn include tan, elongated lesions between veins with light brown to brown borders.	[74]
2018	Tamilnadu	Groundnut	Puccinia Arachidis Speg	Leaf rust	Orange pustules on lower leaflet and rupture as masses of reddish brown urediniospores.	[13]
2018	Greece	Pea	Erysiphe pisi DC	Powdery mildew	Brownish spots on leafs.	[75]
2018	Peninsular Malaysia	Mango	Fusarium	Leaf spot	Gray to grayish brown spots with dark irregular margins.	[76]
2018	Chandigarh India	Eggplant	Fusarium oxysporum	Fusarium wilt	One side of leaf will wilt and stop expanding while the other side continues to develop.	[22]
2018	Northeastern Thailand	Rice	Xanthomonas oryzae	Leaf blight	Pale-green to gray-green than turn yellowish.	[29]
2018	Hawaii, Honolulu	Basil	Peronospora belbahrii	Downy mildew	Yellowish appearance, similar to a nutritional problem.	[27]
2019	Japan	Rose	Phragmidium satoanum	Leaf rust	Yellow black brown spots on both sides.	[23]
2019	Beijing china	Cucumber	Oidium neolycopersici	Powdery mildew	Appears dusty white yellow and gray coating on leaf surface.	[26]
2019	Canada	Strawberry	Sphaerotheca macularis	Powdery mildew	Grayish-white appearance on underside of leafs.	[76]
2019	Chandigarh	Grapevine	Erysiphe necator	Powdery mildew	Gray white powdery development on tissue.	[77]
2019	Guangzhou, China,	Peanut	Puccinia Arachidis Speg	Leaf spot	Circular dark brown spots surrounded by a yellow halo.	[78]
2019	Netherland	Potato	Phytophthora infestans	Late blight	Pale green spots.	[63]
2019	Shandong chins	Cucumber	Trichoderma	Fusarium wilt	Yellowing and wilting of lower leafs.	[20]
2019	USA	Cotton	Fusarium oxysporum	Fusarium wilt	Seem in the spring.	[79]
2019	Australia	Eucalyptus	Teratosphaeria destructans	Early blight	On leafs yellow brown patches and after some time they turn into dark color.	[80]
2019	Flakkebjerg, Denmark	Potato	Alter aria solani	Early blight	When leafs start turning to the small uneven dark brownish spots on top of the lower section.	[53]

Table 2. Host-specific plant leaf disease treatment along with prevention approaches.

Disease	Host plant	Treatment	Prevention
Powdery Mildew	Pea, cucumber, strawberry, and grapevine	Treated with sulfur; apply chemicals on vegetables once the disease signs appear; Eradicate the diseased crops to mitigate the pathogen spread.	Pathogen endures in dry and cool conditions; avoid such conditions to mitigate the pathogen.
Fusarium wilt	Cucumber, cotton, eggplant, chickpea, tomato	Best approach to control disease by using disease-free seedlings or plant-certified seed; Kill the pathogens by applying fungicides, for example Cap tan, Terraclor, Mycostop, and Thiram; safely defend the crops against wilt disease cause over fusarium.	Harmful microbes are prevented by maintaining the garden temperature lower; disinfect and clean farming tools before using them.
Fire blight	Pear & apple	Avoid heavy or low application of fertilizer, both encourage the growth. Avoid planting nearby to wild crops. Once fire blight is appeared, prune off diseased branches one-foot underneath the diseased segments and prevent by burning them to reduce further infection.	Never apply high nitrogen fertilizer
Leaf spot	Peanut, mango apple, soybean and capsicum	Not use overhead water; Decrease humidity among plants by providing adequate space among plants and by pruning lesser branches; Use mulch below trees.	Remove and dispose of spotted leafs on plants that have fallen. Apply sulfur sprays with copper base fungicides in a week after first disease sign to stop its spread from sprouts. Safely manage utmost fungal as well as bacterial disease.
Leaf rust	Sengon, grapevine, wheat, ground& rose	The best way to control white rust is to practice crop rotation. Concerning treatment, try appropriate fungicide to destroy the microbes.	Prevent Albugo through disposing crop separate before planting the crop.
Downy mildew	Basil, soybean, pearl millet, grapevine & maize	Control downy mildew through uprooting the diseased crop along with burn; treat it through forestry-al fungicide.	Prevent the pathogen by avoiding wet and cold conditions; prevent excess overhead irrigation and watering.
Leaf blight	Maize, rice, Cornus florida, corn, carrot	In summer, eliminate limbs, cutting well external infected area and dispose.	Avoid excess of feed along with severe pruning.
Early blight	Eucalyptus, potato, cerely and tomato	Spread copper base fungicides early sign before 2 weeks of disease; cover equally the tops and undersides leafs.	Stake or prune plants to expand air flow and decrease fungal complications; Disinfect pruning shears after each cut; Keep the clean soil under plants; Trickle irrigation and downpour hoses are useful to support keep the foliage. Burn infected plant portions.
Late blight	Potato and Tomato	Remove diseased parts prior to planting and space plants far sufficient apart to permit for sufficiently of air passage; Watering in early morning time, to give plants period to dry ready during the day-evade overhead irrigation.	Keep eyes on the plants for understand the disease complications at early stage; Protection by spraying plants with fungicides which help to prevent late blight infection.

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