Bacterial nanocellulose: engineering, production, and applications

Figures & data

Figure 1. Characteristics of bacterial nanocellulose

Table 1. Characteristics of bacterial nanocellulose for implementation in various applications

Sl No.	Properties	Implementation	References
1	Mechanical strength	BNC’s impressive mechanical characteristics make it ideal for use as a load bearing material in a variety of applications, including food packaging, and medicinal implants.	[6,10]
2	Withstand extremely high temperature	Sterilization using Gamma rays or steam is simple; it’s ideal for packing sterile equipment.	[3]
3	Absorbency and resistance to fiber lift	For paper based dressings	[3]
4	Biocompatibility- nontoxic to human cells	BNC-based implants, wound healing dressings, and personal care products can all benefit from this property.	[108]
5	Wet strength – capability to withstand extremely high temperature	As labeling adhesive for clinical samples, such as blood while being kept in deep freezers, which can withstand extremely low temperatures.	[11,12]
6	Application orient processibility	Enhanced mechanical, and barrier property, along with oil absorbency, air permeability, and antimicrobial properties upon functionalization open up easy molding to different shapes for wider applications.	[13,14]
7	Inertness – to avoid any reactions between packed products during storage	For packing food items, medicines, and surgical devices	[15,16]
8	Biodegradability	Scaffolds should disintegrate within the body after the primary extracellular matrix development starts, thus this is very useful when building them.	[17,18]

Figure 2. Schematic representation of biosynthesis pathways of bacterial nanocellulose production

Figure 3. Genetic engineering stages in the production of bacterial nanocellulose

Figure 4. Different factors affecting biosynthesis of bacterial nanocellulose

Table 2. Major production techniques for bacterial nanocellulose production

Production method	Description	Advantage	Disadvantage	References
Static fermentation	Media components are assorted at the starting; BNC production takes place in the vessel at the air-liquid interface.	Simple technique; No need of sophisticated instruments.	Time consuming process; Monitoring of fermentation condition is difficult; BNC yield affected by two forms of cellulose namely pellicle or reticulated slurry.	[53,83]
Agitated fermentation	Reciprocal agitation at 90–100 rpm; Stirring facilitates rapid cell grow.	Feasible for industrial scale manufacture; Easy to overcome diffusion; Operator friendly.	BNC formed as as irregular spheres not as pellicle; Culture mutation possibilities due to agitation at high rpm; Low yield; Culture instability problems.	[72,84]
Static intermittent fed-batch technique	Specific fresh media help to grow pellicle in huge rate in irregular time intervals.	Simple process; Highly improved production; Large scale productivity.	No proper monitoring of fermentation conditions; Cellulose separated as pellicle, or occasionally as reticulated slurry.	[54,107]
Bioreactor assisted production (Rotary disc and Air lift reactors)	New concept of Rotating Biological Contactor; The organisms were soaked in nutritional media and then exposed to air using discs.	Elevated productivity; Less work-up; Viable to scale-up.	High productivity only if culture media and conditions are properly maintained.	[55–57]
Cell-free extract technique	Cell lysis liberates most of the enzymes necessary for BNC synthesis straight to the medium.	Easy process; Large scale feasibility; Enhanced yield since culture processibility need short time.	No proper control on fermentation parameter.	[58,59]

Table 3. Specific applications of bacterial nanocellulose in different industries

Sl No.	Industry	Application	Reference
1	Food industry	Edible gels and coatings; ice-cream substituent to provide texture/structure modification and form stability; immobilization of probiotics and enzymes; food packaging	[48,87]
2	Personal care	Emulsion stabilizer (facial creams and masks); artificial nails; diapers; skin pigmentation agents; nutrient release agents	[107]
3	Biomedical	Biomedical clothing; dental implants; vascular implants; wound dressings	[90,119]
4	Electronics	Capacitors; flexible electrode materials; biosensors	[91,92]
5	Textiles	Materials with high absorbent capacity; tents and camping materials	[93,94]
6	Environmental protection	Ultra filtration membranes; sewage treatment; absorption of oil pollution, heavy metals and toxins	[95–98]
7	Paper industry	Paper with special characteristics; recycling used books; durable banknotes	[99,100]

Figure 5. Applications of bacterial nanocellulose in different industries

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