Health hazards of hexavalent chromium (Cr (VI)) and its microbial reduction

Figures & data

Figure 1. Toxicological effects of hexavalent chromium on humans.

Figure 2. Hexavalent chromium (Cr (VI) has effects on the ecosystem and human health.

Figure 3. Toxicological effects of hexavalent chromium on the plant.

Table 1. Different physical, chemical, and biological methods available for chromium remediation [94]

S. No.	Biological Methods	Chemical Methods	Physical Methods
1.	Biosorption	Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)	Adsorption
2.	Bioaccumulation	Sodium metabisulfite (NaHSO3)	Membrane filtration
3.	Reverse osmosis	Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4)	Extracellular precipitation
4.	Bioreduction	Sodium dithionite (Na2 S2 O4)	Ion exchange
5.	Electrodialysis	Calcium polysulfide (CaS5)	Biomineralization

Table 2. Various microbes used for biosorption process of chromium (VI)

S. No.	Microorganisms	Remediation %	References
1.	Chelatococcus daeguensis	94.42 (%)	[82,95]
2.	Pseudomonas alcaliphila NEWG-2	96.60 (%)	[83,96]
3.	Bacillus salmalaya	20.35 mg/g	[84,97]
4.	Bacillus sp	75 (%)	[85,98]
5.	Bacillus sp	99 (%)	[86,99]
6.	Klebsiella sp	63.08 (%)	[87,100]
7.	Sinorhizobium sp. SAR1	285.71 mg/g	[88,101]
8.	Aspergillus sp	92 (%)	[89,102]
9.	Aspergillus terreus	54 (%)	[90,103]
10.	Pleurotus ostreatus	100 (%)	[91,104]
11.	Pseudopediastrum boryanum	70 (%)	[91,104]
12.	Scenedesmus sp	98 (%)	[92,105]
13.	Chlorella colonials	97.8 (%)	[93,106]
14.	Spirulina platensis	45.5 mg/g	[94,107]
15.	Isochrysis galbana	335.27 mg/g	[95,108]
16.	Chlamydomonas sp	91 (%)	[36,109]

Table 3. Various functional groups involved in chromium (VI) binding by different microorganisms

S. No.	Microorganisms	Functional groups	References
1.	Bacillus marisflavi and Arthrobacter sp	-OH, -NH acetamido group, free phosphates, phosphate groups, -CN	[34,110]
2.	Pseudomonas aeruginosa Rb-1 and Ochrobactrum intermedium Rb-2	-OH, -NH, S-, -C-C- and C-Cl,- carboxylic group,	[96,111]
3.	Streptomyces werraensis LD22	O–H or N–H, C–H, C–O –	[97,112]
4.	Aspergillus foetidus	C = O, C-Cl, PO4 −3 amine, N = C = S, OH, C-O	[98,113]
5.	Pleurotus ostreatus	NH and COOH	[99,114]
6.	Aspergillus Niger	-COOH, -OH, -NH2	[100,115]
7.	Klebsiella sp.	-NH2, O-H, -CONH-, -COOH, C = C, -CH2	[87,100]
8.	Halomonas sp. DK4	–OH, – CH2, N-H, P–O–C, C = O	[101,116]
9.	Scenedesmus sp	N-H, O-H, C-H, -COOH, C-F, C-Cl, C-Br, C-O	[31,117]
10.	Chlorella miniata	O-H and N-H, C-H, -CH3, COO-, P = O, C-O –	[102,118]
11.	Arthrinium malaysianum	–OH, C–O, C = O, – NO2, CxOH	[103,119]
12.	Pleurotus ostreatus	NH and COOH-	[99,114]
13.	Aspergillus Niger	-COOH, -OH, -NH2	[100,115]

Table 4. Efficiency and mechanism of different microbes for the removal of Cr (VI)

Microbes	Concentration (mg/L)	Carbon source	Temperature (°C)	pH	Efficiency	Mechanisms	References
Serratia sp. C8	20	Glucose	28	6–8	≈80%	Bioreduction	[120]
Sporosarcina saromensis M52	50–200	Acetate	35	7–8.5	>90%	Bioreduction	[121]
Sphingopyxis macrogoltabida SUK2c	4		31	2	55%	Biosorption	[122]
Bacillus sp. CRB-B1	100	Glucose	37	7	Completely	Bioreduction, biosorption	[123]
	100	Fructose	37	7	89.54%	Bioreduction, biosorption	[123]
	100	Sodium lactate	37	7	4.8%		[123]
Pisolithus sp1	25	Organic acid	30	5–6	99%	Bioreduction, biosorption	[124]
Aspergillus sp.	100	Sucrose	27	4	98.96%	Biosorption	[125]
Leiotrametes flavida	1000		30	6	72.38%	Biosorption	[126]
Bacillus cereus	200	Sucrose	37	7.5	Completely	Bioreduction, Biosorption	[127]

Figure 4. Hexavalent chromium (Cr (VI)) biosorption process by microorganisms.

Figure 5. Cr(Ⅵ) detoxification mechanism.

Singh A. ”Hexavalent Chromium: toxic and genotoxic effects and its bioremediation strategies”. Biomed J Sci Tech Res. 2021;35(3):27637–27643.

 Google Scholar

Devi BD, Thatheyus AJ, Ramya D. Bioremoval of hexavalent chromium, using Pseudomonas fluorescens. J Microbiol Biotechnol Res. 2012;2(5):727–735.

 Google Scholar

Li H, Huang S, Zhang Y. Cr(VI) removal from aqueous solution by thermophilic denitrifying bacterium Chelatococcus daeguensis TAD1 in the presence of single and multiple heavy metals. J Microbiol. 2016;54(9):602–610.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Abhipsa S, Chandraraj K. Enzymatic reduction of hexavalent chromium in bacteria. ENVIS Newslett. 2009;7:2–5.

 Google Scholar

El-Naggar NE-A, El-Khateeb AY, Ghoniem AA, et al. Innovative low-cost biosorption process of Cr6+ by Pseudomonas alcaliphila NEWG-2. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):1–18.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ganguli A, Tripathi AK. Survival and chromate reducing ability of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in industrial effluents. Lett Appl Microbiol. 1999;28(1):76–80.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Dadrasnia A, Chuan Wei KS, Shahsavari N, et al. Biosorption potential of bacillus salmalaya strain 139SI for removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solution. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015;12(12):15321–15338.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

El Fantroussi S, Agathos SN. Is bioaugmentation a feasible strategy for pollutant removal and site remediation? Curr Opin Microbiol. 2005;8(3):268–275.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Upadhyay N, Vishwakarma K, Singh J, et al. Tolerance and Reduction of Chromium(VI) by Bacillus sp. MNU16 Isolated from Contaminated Coal Mining Soil. Front Plant Sci. 2017;8:778.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Thavasi R, Sharma S, and Jayalakshmi S. Evaluation of screening methods for the isolation of biosurfactant producing marine bacteria. J Pet Environ Biotechnol S. 2011;1(2 1–7).

 Google Scholar

Pun R, Raut P, Pant BR. Removal of chromium (VI) from leachate using bacterial biomass. Sci World. 2013;11(11):63–65.

 Google Scholar

Asira EE. Factors that determine bioremediation of organic compounds in the soil. Acad J Interdiscip Stud. 2013;2(13):125.

 Google Scholar

Hossan S, Hossain S, Islam MR, et al. Bioremediation of hexavalent chromium by chromium resistant bacteria reduces phytotoxicity. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(17):6013.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Naik MG, Duraphe MD. Review paper on-Parameters affecting bioremediation. Int J Life Sci Pharma Res. 2012;2(3):L77–L80.

 Google Scholar

Jobby R, Jha P, Gupta A, et al. Biotransformation of chromium by root nodule bacteria Sinorhizobium sp. SAR1. PloS one. 2019;14(7):e0219387.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Adams GO, Fufeyin PT, Okoro SE, et al. Bioremediation, Biostimulation and Bioaugmention: a Review. Int J Environ Bioremed Biodegrad. 2020;3(1):28–39.

 Google Scholar

Congeevaram S, Dhanarani S, Park J, et al. Biosorption of chromium and nickel by heavy metal resistant fungal and bacterial isolates. J Hazard Mater. 2007;146(1–2):270–277.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Cases I, and Lorenzo VD. Genetically modified organisms for the environment: stories of success and failure and what we have learned from them International Microbiology . 2005 8(3) 213 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kumaran MB, Prasathkumar M, Kumar DM, et al. Utilization of Aspergillus terreus for the biosorption of hexavalent chromium ions. Asian J Biol Sci. 2013;6(7):312–321.

 Google Scholar

Das N, Chandran P. Microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants: an overview. Biotechnol Res Int. 2011;2011:1–13.

 Google Scholar

Da Rocha Ferreira GL, Vendruscolo F, Antoniosi Filho NR. Biosorption of hexavalent chromium by Pleurotus ostreatus. Heliyon. 2019;5(3):e01450.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Macaulay BM. Understanding the behaviour of oil-degrading micro-organisms to enhance the microbial remediation of spilled petroleum. Appl Ecol Environ Res. 2015;13(1):247–262.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ballén-Segura M, Hernández Rodríguez L, Parra Ospina D, et al. Using Scenedesmus sp. for the phycoremediation of tannery wastewater. Tecciencia. 2016;11(21):69–75.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Yang S-Z, Jin J, Wei Z, et al. Bioremediation of oil spills in cold environments: a review. Pedosphere. 2009;19(3):371–381.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Jaafari J, Yaghmaeian K. Optimization of heavy metal biosorption onto freshwater algae (Chlorella coloniales) using response surface methodology (RSM). Chemosphere. 2019;217:447–455.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nithya K, Sathish A, Pradeep K, et al. Algal biomass waste residues of Spirulina platensis for chromium adsorption and modeling studies. J Environ Chem Eng. 2019;7(5):103273.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kadimpati KK, Mondithoka KP, Bheemaraju S, et al. Entrapment of marine microalga, Isochrysis galbana, for biosorption of Cr (III) from aqueous solution: isotherms and spectroscopic characterization. Appl Water Sci. 2013;3(1):85–92.

 Google Scholar

DesMarias TL, Costa M. Mechanisms of chromium-induced toxicity. Curr Opin Toxicol. 2019;14:1–7.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Ayele A, Godeto YG. Bioremediation of chromium by microorganisms and its mechanisms related to functional groups. J Chem. 2021;2021:1–21.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Shekhawat K, Chatterjee S, Joshi B. Chromium toxicity and its health hazards. Int J Adv Res. 2015;3(7):167–172.

 Google Scholar

Mishra S, Bharagava RN. Toxic and genotoxic effects of hexavalent chromium in environment and its bioremediation strategies. J Environ Sci Health, Part C. 2016;34(1):1–32.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Batool R, Yrjälä K, Hasnain S. Impact of environmental stress on biochemical parameters of bacteria reducing chromium. Braz J Microbiol. 2014;45:573–583.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Latha S, Vinothini G, Dhanasekaran D. Chromium [Cr (VI)] biosorption property of the newly isolated actinobacterial probiont Streptomyces werraensis LD22. 3 Biotech. 2015;5(4):423–432.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Ahluwalia SS, Goyal D. Removal of Cr (VI) from aqueous solution by fungal biomass. Eng Life Sci. 2010;10(5):480–485.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Arbanah M, Miradatul NMR, Halim KKH. Utilization of Pleurotus ostreatus in the removal of Cr (VI) from chemical laboratory waste. Int Refreed J Eng Sci. 2013;2(4):29–39.

 Google Scholar

Chhikara S, Hooda A, Rana L, et al. Chromium (VI) biosorption by immobilized Aspergillus Niger in continuous flow system with special reference to FTIR analysis. J Environ Biol. 2010;31(5):561–566.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kalola V, Desai C. Biosorption of Cr (VI) by Halomonas sp. DK4, a halotolerant bacterium isolated from chrome electroplating sludge. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2020;27(22):27330–27344.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sharma P, Pandey AK, Udayan A, et al. Role of microbial community and metal-binding proteins in phytoremediation of heavy metals from industrial wastewater. Bioresour Technol. 2021e;326:124750.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Pradhan D, Sukla LB, Sawyer M, et al. Recent bioreduction of hexavalent chromium in wastewater treatment: a review. J Ind Eng Chem. 2017;55:1–20.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Han X, Wong YS, Wong MH, et al. Feasibility of using microalgal biomass cultured in domestic wastewater for the removal of chromium pollutants. Water Environ Res. 2008;80(7):647–653.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Majumder R, Sheikh L, Naskar A, et al. Depletion of Cr (VI) from aqueous solution by heat dried biomass of a newly isolated fungus Arthrinium malaysianum: a mechanistic approach. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):1–15.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

González PS, Ambrosio LF, Paisio CE, et al. Chromium (VI) remediation by a native strain: effect of environmental conditions and removal mechanisms involved. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2014;21(23):13551–13559.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ran ZHAO, Bi WANG, Cai QT, et al. Bioremediation of hexavalent chromium pollution by Sporosarcina saromensis M52 isolated from offshore sediments in Xiamen, China. Biomedical and Environmental Sciences. 2016;29(2):127–136.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Prabhakaran DC, Bolanos-Benitez V, Sivry Y, et al. Mechanistic studies on the bioremediation of Cr (VI) using Sphingopyxis macrogoltabida SUK2c, a Cr (VI) tolerant bacterial isolate. Biochem Eng J. 2019;150:107292.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Tan H, Wang C, Zeng G, et al. Bioreduction and biosorption of Cr (VI) by a novel Bacillus sp. CRB-B1 strain. J Hazard Mater. 2020;386:121628.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Shi L, Xue J, Liu B, et al. Hydrogen ions and organic acids secreted by ectomycorrhizal fungi, Pisolithus sp1, are involved in the efficient removal of hexavalent chromium from waste water. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2018;161:430–436.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Chakraborty V, Sengupta S, Chaudhuri P, et al. Assessment on removal efficiency of chromium by the isolated manglicolous fungi from Indian Sundarban mangrove forest: removal and optimization using response surface methodology. Environ Technol Innovation. 2018;10:335–344.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Antony GS, Manna A, Baskaran S, et al. Non-enzymatic reduction of Cr (VI) and it’s effective biosorption using heat-inactivated biomass: a fermentation waste material. J Hazard Mater. 2020;392:122257.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Banerjee S, Misra A, Chaudhury S, et al. A Bacillus strain TCL isolated from Jharia coalmine with remarkable stress responses, chromium reduction capability and bioremediation potential. J Hazard Mater. 2019;367:215–223.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar