Women’s involvement in economic opportunities in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Indonesia: Examining personal experiences and potential for empowerment

Figures & data

Table 1. Framework of empowerment processes.

Types of power	Explanation	Examples of empowerment	Examples of economic empowerment
‘power within’	Self-understanding, self-esteem, sense of entitlement to fulfillment of their rights, self-belief to make changes in their lives, which are related to agency. This involves individuals developing critical consciousness to recognize systems of oppression and act to advance their interests (Cornwall and Rivas 2015; Freire 1970)	Perception that women have capabilities equal to men and are entitled to pursue their own aspirations	Learning business skills or financial literacy to feel prepared to start an enterprise
‘power to’	Capabilities and potential to make decisions and to pursue opportunities (Hillenbrand et al. 2015) in terms of the unique potential of every person to shape their lives and worlds in line with their interests Alsop, Bertelsen, and Holland (2006), extending to areas traditionally considered as men’s occupations or domains	Decision-making in households, leadership of women in village-level committees and government agencies	Managing decisions within own enterprises
‘power over’	Access and control over financial, physical, and knowledge resources and services (Rao and Kelleher 2005)	Women's ownership and control over land, housing, safety, and freedom of movement	Access to credit, paid employment, and income-generating activities
‘power with’	Relationships of solidarity and collective struggle to agitate for rights and to change the labour and market conditions (Cornwall and Rivas 2015), contributing to structural transformation of laws, policies, and institutions towards equity and inclusion (Hillenbrand et al. 2015)	Process of group conscientisation and mobilization, opportunities for voice through group membership and activism	Forming cooperatives, unions, and group-based financial services

Table 2. Roles of participants.

No.	ID	Location	Education	Age	Status	Role(s)
1	SAN	NTB	University	23	Single	Midwife, Business owner, Cooperative members
2	TAN	East Java	University	44	Married	Sanitarian, Business Owner
3	AIN	South Lampung	Senior High School	55	Married	Cadre, Part-Time Teacher
4	TIT	South Lampung	Junior High School	49	Married	Cadre
5	RAM	NTB	University	43	Married	Santarian
6	JEA	NTT	University	49	Married	Cadre, Business Owner
7	SUM	East Java	University	47	Married	Sanitarian, Business Owner
8	NUR	NTB	Senior High School	39	Married	Cadre, Part-Time Teacher, Rural Water Supply Village Owned Enterprise (BUMDES)
9	ANI	NTB	University	31	Single	Cadre, Teacher
10	MUL	NTB	University	40	Married	Business Owner, Part-time Teacher
11	SRI	NTB	University	37	Married	Sanitarian
12	NEN	NTB	University	42	Married	Sanitarian, Business Owner
13	SUS	Central Java	University	55	Married	Cadre, Civil Cervant, Head of Rural Water Supply Community-Based Organizations
14	SUT	Central Java	Elementary School	51	Married	Cadre, Head of Rural Water Supply Community-Based Organizations
15	ABD	East Java	Senior High School	61	Widow	Business Owner
16	MAR	Central Java	Junior High School	34	Married	Cadre, Former Head of Rural Water Supply Community-Based Organizations
17	TRI	NTT	University	34	Married	Sanitarian
18	SEHA	South Lampung	Junior High School	45	Married	Cadre, Head of Women's Cooperative

Cornwall, A., and A.-M. Rivas. 2015. “From ‘Gender Equality' and ‘Women’s Empowerment’ to Global Justice: Reclaiming a Transformative Agenda for Gender and Development.” Third World Quarterly 36 (2): 396–415. doi: 10.1080/01436597.2015.1013341

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