Determinants of distress sales of farmland in rural Kenya

Figures & data

Figure 1. Concentration of households that sold farmland in response to shocks per county – 2005/2006 KIHBS (the color density represents the spread of cases of distress land sales).

Figure 2. Concentration of households that sold farmland in response to shocks per county – 2015/2016 KIHBS (the color density represents the spread of cases of distress land sales).

Table 1. Characteristics of shocks that led to distress sales of farmland.

	2005/2006			2015/2016
Variables	Mean	Std.Dev.	N	Mean	Std.Dev.	N
Nature of shock (idiosyncratic = 1)	0.723	0.449	231	0.642	0.482	106
Estimated loss from shock (KES^a)	55,890	250,549	231	65,286	223,321	79

^a KES – Kenya Shilling. In 2005/2006, 1 USD = 72.4 KES. In 2015/2016, 1 USD = 101.3 KES.

Table 2. Characteristics of households (in districts and counties where land was sold).

	2005/2006			2015/2016
Variables	Mean	Std.Dev.	N	Mean	Std.Dev.	N
Household labor force	2.6	1.6	10,610	1.8	1.2	13,571
Age of household head	44.5	15.7	10,885	44.8	16.1	13,553
Sex of household head (male = 1, female = 0)	0.71	–	10,885	0.67	–	13,571
Land size (acre)	2.2	16.8	6823	2.0	17.2	13,571
Title deed (has title = 1)	0.39	–	5427	0.48	–	13,571
Land markets (exists = 1)	0.75	–	6823	0.77	–	13,571
Livestock value (KES)	27,054	101,284	9671	29,864	132,118	13,571
Credit (has access = 1)	0.29	–	10,596	0.35	–	13,571
Access to all-weather road (% of population with access)	18.7	17.3	10,894	–	–	–
All-weather road in cluster (yes = 1)	–	–	–	0.73	–	13,552
Used social safety networks to respond to shocks (used = 1)	0.48	–	8971	0.28	–	9067

Table 3. Shock characteristics influencing household decision to sell farmland as a coping mechanism (marginal effects).

	2005/2006	2015/2016	Pooled (2005/2006 and 2015/2016)
Nature of shock (idiosyncratic shocks = 1)	0.1094* (0.0571)	0.0517 (0.0827)	0.0931** (0.0466)
Financial loss from the shock	0.0688*** (0.0203)	0.0642*** (0.0242)	0.0680*** (0.0154)
Shock was associated with reduction in: (income loss is reference category)
Asset loss	0.0809 (0.0711)	0.1781 (0.1261)	0.1039* (0.0614)
Both asset and income loss	0.1846*** (0.0645)	0.2393*** (0.0845)	0.2017*** (0.0513)
Neither income nor asset loss	−0.1326 (0.0927)	−0.0092 (0.2175)	−0.1041 (0.0839)
2015/2016 (2005/2006 is reference period)			−0.0162 (0.0500)
Number of observations (N)	378	177	555
Pseudo R-squared	0.0900	0.1150	0.0956
F-value	46.59***	27.93***	72.67***

Notes: Standard errors are in brackets. ***, **, * significant at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively.

Table 4. Household characteristics influencing decision to sell farmland as a coping mechanism (marginal effects).

	2005/2006	2015/2016	Pooled (2005/2006 and 2015/2016)
Household labor size	0.0001 (.0015)	0.0005 (0.0008)	0.0002 (0.0006)
Age of household head	0.0048*** (0.0015)	0.0003 (0.0004)	0.0012*** (0.0004)
Age of household head squared	−0.00004*** (0.00002)	−8.51e-07 (3.70e-06)	−9.66e-06** (3.78e-06)
Sex of household head (Male = 1)	−0.0015 (0.0063)	−0.0004 (0.0023)	0.0012 (0.0021)
Education of household head (‘no formal education’ is reference category)
Primary	−0.0006 (0.0067)	−0.0015 (0.0024)	−0.0025 (0.0023)
Secondary	0.0019 (0.0088)	0.0022 (0.0034)	−0.0046* (0.0026)
Tertiary	−0.0164** (0.0073)	0.0026 (0.0040)	−0.0046 (0.0029)
Log of household land size^a (Acres)	0.0061** (0.0028)	0.0048** (0.0024)	0.0056** (0.0020)
Land markets exist (Yes = 1)	0.0211** (0.0090)	0.0304** (0.0185)	0.4901** (0.0026)
Land has a title deed (Yes = 1)	−0.0020 (0.0058)	−0.0171 (0.0022)	−0.0114 (0.0821)
Log of household livestock value	−0.0029* (0.0017)	−0.0106** (0.0011)	−0.0296** (0.0016)
Household access to credit (Yes = 1)	−0.0051 (0.0057)	−0.0029 (0.0022)	−0.0006 (0.0019)
Log of households with access to all-weather road	−0.0044* (0.0025)
All-weather road in cluster (1 = yes)		−0.0047** (0.0021)
Used social safety networks to respond to shocks (1 = used)	0.0014 (0.0055)	0.0036* (0.0021)	0.0032* (0.0018)
2015/2016 (2005/2006 is reference year)			−0.0096*** (0.0019)
Number of observations (N)	2635	7508	14,368
Pseudo R-squared	0.0483	0.0497	0.0548
F-value	34.62***	36.71***	76.24***

Notes: Standard errors are in brackets. ***, **, * significant at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively.

^a This refers to the post-sale size.

Table A1. First coping option with shocks (using 2005/2006 KIHBS).

Shock	Overall	No response	spent cash savings	Sent children to live with relatives	Sold assets (tools, furniture)	Sold farm land	Rented out farm land	Sold animals	Sold more crops	Worked more, worked longer hours	Other household members worked	Started a new business	Removed children from school to work
Drought/Floods	12.73	7.21	11.33	16.51	8.35	14.38	13.13	20.82	2.8	16.51	16.81	9.62	18.52
Crop Diseases/Crop Pests	2.44	3.37	2.7	2.29	2.03	1.37	7.5	2.16	2.37	3.82	3.36	2.4	1.85
Livestock died/Stolen	9.75	17.79	7.03	13.3	6.58	4.79	8.13	11.6	7.96	12.39	15.13	7.01	3.7
Household business failure	4.23	4.33	3.54	3.21	7.59	3.42	4.38	1.7	1.72	7.1	7.14	30.26	9.26
Loss of Employment, Salaried	2.99	0.96	2.68	4.13	4.56	1.37	0.63	0.93	1.29	3.13	12.18	20.04	5.56
End of Regular Assistance	1.26	0.96	0.57	3.21	1.52	0.68	1.25	1.16	1.08	2.35	4.62	1.4	5.56
Large fall in sale prices for crops	3.02	4.33	3.18	0.92	0.25	2.74	7.5	1.54	31.4	4.52	1.68	3.41
Large rise in prices for Food	16.62	11.54	17.06	4.59	9.87	3.42	7.5	12.72	5.16	19.34	10.08	7.41	5.56
Large rise in agricultural input prices	4.06	3.85	5.61	-	1.77	3.42	12.5	3.16	18.49	5.63	2.94	1.6	3.7
Severe water shortage	5.46	4.33	5.84	2.75	2.53	2.74	1.88	2.35	1.29	5.55	5.46	1	12.96
Chronic/Severe illness/accident of HH m	11.98	7.21	15.72	3.21	24.05	23.29	18.13	21.36	15.27	4.12	5.04	2.4	3.7
Birth in Household	1.2	1.92	1.33		2.78	1.37	0.63	1.08	0.65	1.76	0.84	0.8
Death of Household Head	2.03	2.4	1.45	3.67	2.78	4.11	1.25	1.54	0.22	2.35	5.04	2.4	5.56
Death of Working Member	1.02	1.92	0.75	4.13	1.77	2.74		0.93		0.51	0.42	0.6	1.85
Death of other family member	11.26	15.87	12.02	16.06	13.16	16.44	5.63	10.6	4.73	3.27	2.1	2	3.7
Break-up of Household	1.32	0.96	0.53	12.39	0.76	2.05	1.88	0.27	0.22	1.32	2.52	2.61	3.7
Jailed	1.09	1.92	0.97	1.38	2.28	3.42	1.88	1.77	0.65	0.44	0.84	0.4
Fire	0.91	0.96	0.8	0.46	0.76	0.68	0.63	0.73	0.86	0.63		1.4
Carjacking/Robbery/Burglary/Assault	2.65	4.33	2.9	0.46	2.03	2.05	0.63	0.42	1.51	2.39	1.26	1
Dwelling Damaged	0.83	0.96	0.94	1.38	0.76	1.37	2.5	0.58	0.43	0.48	0.42	0.4	3.7
HIV/AIDS	0.41	0.96	0.53		1.77	0.68		0.08		0.22
Other1	2.52	1.92	2.23	4.59	1.77	2.74	2.5	2.35	1.94	2.13	1.68	1.6	11.11
Other 2	0.22		0.3	1.38	0.25	0.68		0.15		0.04	0.42	0.2
Total			6630	218	395	146	160	2594	465	2720	238	499	54

Table

Shock	Went elsewhere to find work	Borrowed money from relatives	Borrowed money from money lender	Borrowed money from institutions	Received help from religious	Received help from local NGO	Received help international NGO	Received help from Government	Received help from family/friends	Reduced food consumption	Consumed lower cost, but less preferred foods	Reduced non food expenditures	Spiritual help	Others
Drought/Floods	11.14	6.53	8.62	5.51	13.84	40.59	42.42	42.35	5.06	14.77	11.6	6.23	7.74	9.17
Crop Diseases/Crop Pests	2.57	1.19	4.31	1.57		0.99	4.04	2.8	0.9	2.02	1.51	2.19	0.73	4
Livestock died/Stolen	7.43	8.16	1.72	6.3	4.4	15.35	12.12	19.59	6.05	7.91	5.57	5.39	9.43	19.79
Household business failure	16.57	5.04	3.45	12.6		0.99	1.01	0.75	1.94	1.15	0.9	4.88	1.01	6.52
Loss of Employment, Salaried	33.14	3.12	4.31	3.15	0.63	0.5		0.37	2.27	0.92	0.75	2.86	0.79	2.75
End of Regular Assistance	4	1.34		0.79	1.89	5.45		0.93	1.56	1.5	0.75	1.52	0.84	0.74
Large fall in sale prices for crops	0.86	1.48	4.31	5.51	0.63	0.5	2.02	0.37	0.61	1.33	2.41	4.04	0.79	3.91
Large rise in prices for Food	2.57	5.04	7.76	7.09	5.66	9.9	12.12	5.41	4.92	60.13	66.11	46.8	1.68	3.21
Large rise in agricultural input prices	0.57	5.19	6.9	3.15	0.63		1.01	0.19	0.95	1.1	1.66	7.41	0.34	6.47
Severe water shortage	2	1.19	1.72		12.58	18.81	13.13	10.07	3.45	3.29	1.36	6.06	3.54	16.62
Chronic/Severe illness/accident of HH m	1.71	30.86	27.59	18.11	12.58	1.98	3.03	4.66	19.06	1.56	1.36	2.53	14.03	2.79
Birth in Household		3.41	0.86	1.57	1.89			0.37	1.75	0.92	1.05	1.18	0.45	0.47
Death of Household Head	0.86	1.34	1.72		5.03	0.5		0.37	4.59	0.17	0.45	0.51	6.45	0.7
Death of Working Member	0.57	0.89			3.77	0.5			2.55	0.17		0.34	3.42	0.42
Death of other family member	2	12.91	10.34	14.17	23.9	0.5	1.01	1.12	27.44	0.75	0.45	2.02	37.09	4.33
Break-up of Household	4.29	0.89			0.63			0.19	2.37	0.35	0.6	0.34	2.69	3.12
Jailed	0.86	2.08	5.17	0.79	0.63				2.03		0.45	0.34	1.57	1.16
Fire	2	1.34	0.86	1.57	3.14			0.37	3.26	0.17		0.17	0.62	0.65
Carjacking/Robbery/Burglary/Assault	1.71	4.01	4.31	3.15	1.89	0.5	1.01	4.48	4.68	0.58	0.9	1.68	2.08	6.61
Dwelling Damaged	0.29	2.08	0.86	0.79	3.14	0.5	2.02	0.37	1.7			0.34	0.22	1.54
HIV/AIDS		0.45	0.86		0.63	0.5	1.01	0.37	0.71	0.06	0.3	0.17	1.35	0.05
Other1	4.57	1.19	3.45	12.6	2.52	1.98	4.04	4.66	1.94	1.04	1.81	2.86	2.92	4.7
Other 2	0.29	0.3	0.86	1.57				0.19	0.19	0.12		0.17	0.22	0.28
Total	350	674	116	127	159	202	99	536	2114	1733	664	594	1782	2148

Table A2. Second coping option with shocks (using 2005/2006 KIHBS).

Shock	Overall	No response-coping2	spent cash savings	Sent children to live with relatives	Sold assets (tools, furniture)	Sold farm land	Rented out farm land	Sold animals	Sold more crops	Worked more, worked longer hours	Other household members worked	Started a new business	Removed children from school to work
Drought/Floods	12.73	10.08	10.28	22.93	9.13	16.9	8.43	23.68	6.56	14.87	28.03	10.07	21.62
Crop Diseases/Crop Pests	2.44	3.1	2.63	1.91	1.66		2.41	1.4	2.7	3.62	3.11	2.88	5.41
Livestock died/Stolen	9.75	11.52	8.05	15.92	4.98	4.23	3.61	9.91	6.18	7.88	13.84	9.35	10.81
Household business failure	4.23	4.84	5.5	1.27	6.64	2.82	2.41	1.67	1.54	6.43	3.46	21.58
Loss of Employment, Salaried	2.99	2.71	3.35	1.27	10.37	5.63	1.2	1.05	1.16	3.38	3.81	13.31	10.81
End of Regular Assistance	1.26	1.01	1.2	3.18	1.24		3.61	0.96	0.77	1.29	4.15	3.96	2.7
Large in sale prices for crops	3.02	3.84	4.14	0.64	0.83	4.23	13.25	1.49	12.36	3.78	2.77	3.24	2.7
Large rise in prices for Food	16.62	11.25	13.31	10.19	8.71	4.23	12.05	14.47	8.88	20.9	16.96	12.95	13.51
Large rise in agricultural input prices	4.06	5.76	3.43	1.91	1.66	1.41	12.05	2.89	16.6	4.82	2.08	1.8
Severe water shortage	5.46	7.04	2.71	3.18	0.83	4.23	2.41	2.98	1.93	9.73	2.42	0.72	5.41
Chronic/Severe illness/accident of HH m	11.98	11.35	16.81	3.82	29.05	22.54	14.46	18.33	22.01	7.64	4.84	2.88	8.11
Birth in Household	1.2	1.1	1.2		0.41	1.41	1.2	0.53	0.77	1.77	1.04		5.41
Death of Household Head	2.03	1.52	1.59	5.1	2.07	5.63		3.33	1.93	2.57	4.15	4.32	2.7
Death of Working Member	1.02	1.05	0.96	3.18	1.66	1.41	2.41	1.14	0.39	1.13	1.04	0.72
Death of other family member	11.26	11.5	16.02	9.55	8.71	8.45	13.25	10	10.81	2.25	2.77	2.52	2.7
Break-up of Household	1.32	1.75	0.8	3.82	2.07	2.82		0.26		1.29	1.04	2.52	2.7
Jailed	1.09	1.46	1.12	1.27	1.66	2.82		1.14	0.77	0.4		0.36
Fire	0.91	0.76	2.07	1.91	2.07	1.41	1.2	0.79	0.77	1.05		1.08
Carjacking/Robbery/Burglary/Assault	2.65	3.81	1.59	2.55	1.24	2.82	2.41	0.79	0.39	2.01	1.04	3.24
Dwelling Damaged	0.83	0.92	0.88	2.55	0.41	2.82	2.41	0.88	1.16	0.72		0.36
HIV/AIDS	0.41	0.43	0.32	0.64	1.66			0.18		0.16		0.36
Other1	2.52	2.91	1.99	3.18	2.49	4.23		2.02	1.93	2.17	3.46	1.44	5.41
Other 2	0.22	0.27	0.08		0.41		1.2	0.09	0.39	0.16		0.36
Total		12,137	1255	157	241	71	83	1140	259	1244	289	278	37

Table

Shock	Went elsewhere to find work	Borrowed money from relatives	Borrowed money from money lender	Borrowed money from institutions	Received help from religious	Received help from local NGO	Received help international NGO	Received help from Government	Received help from family/friends	Reduced food consumption	Consumed lower cost, but less preferred foods	Reduced non food expenditures	Spiritual help	Others
Drought/Floods	15.12	7.52	3	4	8.6	43.95	50	41.05	6.55	21.18	15.21	9.06	7.97	10.61
Crop Diseases/Crop Pests	1.74	1.41		1.33	1.36	3.14	3.47	1.45	1.25	2	1.05	1.07	0.87	2.89
Livestock died/Stolen	8.72	5.17	8	5.33	7.24	19.28	11.81	19.71	6.19	6.68	5.92	5.84	6.85	12.86
Household business failure	13.95	4.39	5	8	0.45	0.9		0.36	2.08	2.6	1.87	3.6	2.37	5.79
Loss of Employment, Salaried	29.07	4.86	8	4	0.45			0.18	2.38	2.08	1.87	4.48	0.87	5.79
End of Regular Assistance	1.16	0.78		4	1.81			1.99	0.95	1.91	2.32	2.04	0.62
Large in sale prices for crops	3.49	1.25	1	4	2.71	0.9	0.69	0.72	0.12	2.52	1.27	3.51	1.25	1.93
Large rise in prices for Food	6.98	8.31	6	8		13.45	0.69	18.26	6.96	42.53	58.5	45.57	4.23	2.25
Large rise in agricultural input prices	1.16	3.13	3	4			18.06	0.36	0.42	1.39	0.97	4.38	0.87	4.82
Severe water shortage	1.74	2.82	3	1.33	3.62	13.45	0.69	5.97	2.02	2.6	2.17	3.6	6.72	12.54
Chronic/Severe illness/accident of HH m	1.16	29.15	28	25.33	13.57	0.9	5.56	3.07	22.62	4.86	2.62	5.74	18.93	7.72
Birth in Household	2.33	1.72	3		0.9		0.69	0.36	1.73	1.22	1.42	2.43	1	0.96
Death of Household Head	4.07	1.41	2	2.67	7.24	0.45	1.39	0.18	5.24	1.22	0.67	0.88	4.11	2.25
Death of Working Member	0.58	1.72	1		2.71		0.69	0.18	1.9	0.52	0.15	0.29	1.49	0.32
Death of other family member	0.58	14.58	16	10.67	40.27	0.45		1.27	28.45	2.43	1.12	3.02	31.01	10.61
Break-up of Household	4.07	0.78	2		1.36			0.18	1.43	0.43	0.52	0.68	0.75	1.61
Jailed	0.58	1.88	1		0.45				1.31	0.26	0.3	0.29	0.75	1.93
Fire		1.1	2	5.33	2.71	0.45		0.54	2.08	0.09	0.07	0.39	1.25	0.96
Carjacking/Robbery/Burglary/Assault	0.58	4.23	2	2.67	0.9			1.27	2.32	0.61	0.3	1.36	1.87	6.43
Dwelling Damaged	0.58	0.47	2	1.33	1.36		1.39	0.36	1.79	0.35	0.15	0.1	0.5	0.96
HIV/AIDS		0.94	1		1.81	1.35	1.39	0.18	0.54	0.35	0.07	0.19	0.87
Other1	1.16	2.35	3	6.67	0.45	1.35	3.47	2.35	1.67	2	1.35	1.07	4.36	6.43
Other 2	1.16			1.33						0.17	0.07	0.39	0.5	0.32
Total	172	638	100	75	221	223	144	553	1680	1152	1335	1027	803	311

Table A3. Third coping option with shocks (using 2005/2006 KIHBS).

Shock	Overall	No response-coping2	spent cash savings	Sent children to live with relatives	Sold assets (tools, furniture)	Sold farm land	Rented out farm land	Sold animals	Sold more crops	Worked more, worked longer hours	Other household members worked	Started a new business	Removed children from school to work
Drought/Floods	12.73	11.24	11.85	10.64	16.88	6.67		26.24	2.08	20.53	15.52	13.33	18.18
Crop Diseases/Crop Pests	2.44	2.79	1.85	2.13	2.6			1.06	8.33	0.53	3.45	1.11
Livestock died/Stolen	9.75	9.93	5.93	21.28	5.19	6.67		10.64	4.17	12	22.41	8.89	9.09
Household business failure	4.23	4.59	2.96		6.49	13.33	5.56	1.42		4.53	3.45	20	2.27
Loss of Employment, Salaried	2.99	2.93	5.19	8.51	3.9			1.42		2.67	8.62	7.78	2.27
End of Regular Assistance	1.26	1.1	1.48	6.38	1.3			1.42		1.07	5.17		2.27
Large in sale prices for crops	3.02	3.42	2.96	2.13			16.67	0.71	12.5	3.47	1.72	6.67
Large rise in prices for Food	16.62	14.1	20	4.26	11.69	6.67	16.67	14.18	12.5	26.13	10.34	12.22	6.82
Large rise in agricultural input prices	4.06	4.84	2.96			6.67	5.56	3.19	10.42	1.6		1.11	2.27
Severe water shortage	5.46	5.72	1.48	4.26	3.9	6.67		3.55	2.08	7.47	3.45	2.22	13.64
Chronic/Severe illness/accident of HH m	11.98	12.39	14.07	6.38	23.38	13.33	22.22	10.64	25	6.13	5.17	1.11	11.36
Birth in Household	1.2	1.13	1.48		1.3		5.56	0.35	4.17	2.13	1.72	1.11	2.27
Death of Household Head	2.03	1.75	4.07	6.38	1.3	13.33		6.74	2.08	2.4	6.9	4.44	6.82
Death of Working Member	1.02	1	1.85	2.13	2.6		5.56	1.06			1.72	3.33	6.82
Death of other family member	11.26	12	13.33	17.02	14.29		5.56	10.99	12.5	1.6	3.45	5.56	6.82
Break-up of Household	1.32	1.47			2.6		5.56	0.35		1.33		3.33
Jailed	1.09	1.25	2.22		1.3	6.67	5.56			0.27
Fire	0.91	0.89	1.48			6.67	5.56	1.06	2.08	1.6	1.72	4.44
Carjacking/Robbery/Burglary/Assault	2.65	3.13	2.59			6.67		0.71		1.07		1.11	2.27
Dwelling Damaged	0.83	0.91	1.11					1.42		0.53
HIV/AIDS	0.41	0.45		2.13						0.53			2.27
Other1	2.52	2.73	1.11	4.26	1.3	6.67		2.48	2.08	2.13	5.17	2.22	4.55
Other 2	0.22	0.24		2.13				0.35		0.27
		19,558	270	47	77	15	18	282	48	375	58	90	44

Table

Shock	Went elsewhere to find work	Borrowed money from relatives	Borrowed money from money lender	Borrowed money from institutions	Received help from religious	Received help from local NGO	Received help international NGO	Received help from Government	Received help from family/friends	Reduced food consumption	Consumed lower cost, but less preferred foods	Reduced non food expenditures	Spiritual help	Others
Drought/Floods	17.57	5.22	7.94	2.63	5.76	40.7	61.64	35.98	12.19	22.03	16.62	14.76	17.82	4.71
Crop Diseases/Crop Pests	4.05	2.01				1.16		1.98	1.15	1.15	1.11	1	1.88	1.18
Livestock died/Stolen	10.81	3.61	4.76	7.89	7.91	17.44	12.33	15.58	10.05	10.92	6.93	6.17	11.63	8.24
Household business failure	9.46	4.82	1.59	7.89	1.44			0.57	2.64	3.26	3.88	2.75	1.13	1.18
Loss of Employment, Salaried	13.51	4.42	4.76		2.88		1.37	0.85	2.47	4.41	3.19	3.09	2.06	3.53
End of Regular Assistance	2.7	1.61	4.76		1.44	1.16		0.57	1.48	3.07	2.08	2.17	1.13	1.18
Large in sale prices for crops	1.35	2.01						0.28	0.82	2.49	0.83	2.17	0.56	5.88
Large rise in prices for Food	18.92	9.24	14.29	15.79	1.44	19.77	17.81	30.31	7.91	27.2	39.75	47.62	4.5	5.88
Large rise in agricultural input prices		2.41	4.76	2.63				0.28	0.49	1.15	1.25	1.75	1.69	4.71
Severe water shortage	2.7	4.02	1.59	2.63	4.32	11.63	2.74	7.08	4.12	5.36	4.16	2.59	7.32	12.94
Chronic/Severe illness/accident of HH m	8.11	26.91	23.81	21.05	12.23	1.16		2.27	16.14	8.62	8.03	6.51	18.01	11.76
Birth in Household		2.41	1.59		0.72			0.28	1.81	1.53	1.52	1.92	0.56	1.18
Death of Household Head	4.05	2.41	1.59	2.63	9.35	1.16	1.37	0.57	6.75	1.92	1.11	0.83	4.69
Death of Working Member		0.8	1.59	2.63	3.6				2.14	0.96	0.55	0.58	1.5	1.18
Death of other family member		14.06	17.46	10.53	41.73	1.16	2.74	0.57	20.92	2.68	4.29	3.09	17.64	16.47
Break-up of Household	2.7	1.2							1.81	0.38		0.92	1.13	3.53
Jailed		1.2	1.59					0.28	0.66	0.77	0.42	0.17	1.13	1.18
Fire		2.41			2.16			0.28	0.99	0.38	0.28	0.25	1.69	4.71
Carjacking/Robbery/Burglary/Assault	1.35	3.61	6.35	2.63	1.44			0.57	1.65	0.38	0.97	0.5	0.75	4.71
Dwelling Damaged		2.01		2.63	1.44	1.16			0.66		0.55	0.08	1.31	1.18
HIV/AIDS		0.4			1.44	1.16		0.57	0.66		0.14	0.17	0.38
Other1	2.7	2.81		18.42	0.72	2.33		1.13	2.47	1.34	2.22	0.92	1.5	3.53
Other 2		0.4	1.59								0.14			1.18
	74	249	63	38	139	86	73	353	607	522	722	1199	533	85

Table A4. First coping option with shocks (using 2015/2016 KIHBS).

Shocks	Overall	No response-coping1	Spent cash savings	Sent children to live with relatives	Sold assets (e.g. Tools, Furniture)	Sold farm land	Rented out farmland	Sold animals	Sold more crops	Worked longer hours or worked more	Other hh members who weren’t working went to work	Started a new business	Removed children from school to work
Birth in the household	328	1.72	1.86	1.03		2.99	1.49	0.67	0.74	1.9	2.35	0.56	3.45
Bread winner jailed	81	0.25	0.25		1.72	1.49		0.4	0.5	0.42	1.18	0.28
Break-up of the household	610	3.69	0.86	25.77	3.45	1.49		0.27	0.5	2.91	12.94	4.19	17.24
Carjacking	14		0.09							0.12
Conflict	231	0.74	0.86		1.72	4.48		0.6	0.99	0.36
Crop disease or crop pests	2098	7.62	7.27	2.06	4.6	4.48	16.42	5.14	22.08	12.77	3.53	7.82	3.45
Death of household head	565	3.69	1.49	4.12	2.3	10.45	5.97	1.74	0.74	1.78	8.24	1.96
Death of other family member	2782	15.23	10.69	8.25	8.62	17.91	2.99	6.95	4.71	1.54	4.71	1.96	13.79
Death of working member of household	186	1.47	0.62	3.09	2.3		1.49	0.47	0.25	0.36	5.88
Drought or floods	4418	13.76	12.42	10.31	9.2	8.96	14.93	23.91	5.71	22.74	11.76	10.06	13.79
Dwelling damaged, destroyed	167		0.97		1.15		1.49	0.47	0.25	0.3		0.28
End of regular assistance, aid	347	0.25	1.29	2.06	2.87			0.73	0.25	2.79	8.24	1.96	6.9
Ethnic/clan clashes	407	2.21	0.43	3.09	1.15			0.27		0.12	1.18	0.56
Eviction	108	0.98	0.24	3.09	1.15	1.49		0.13		0.3	1.18	0.28
Fire	239	0.98	0.67	1.03	0.57	1.49	1.49	0.2	1.24	0.59		1.4
HIV/aids	142	0.25	0.55	1.03	1.72		1.49	0.2		0.06		0.56	3.45
Household business failure, non-agric.	1104	2.95	3.97	2.06	9.2	4.48	4.48	0.6	3.72	7.48	8.24	28.77
Large fall in sale prices for crops	822	2.46	1.78		2.3	1.49	4.48	1.54	32.26	3.62		3.63
Large rise in agricultural input prices	662	1.97	3.75		4.02	2.99	7.46	1.14	2.98	2.49	1.18	0.56
Large rise in price of food	3635	9.83	18.56	4.12	7.47	2.99	2.99	7.41	5.96	16.15	7.06	5.31	6.9
Livestock died	3157	12.78	7.33	11.34	4.02	4.48	7.46	25.65	3.97	6.47	3.53	5.31	13.79
Livestock were stolen	752	3.69	1.34	1.03			7.46	5.88	0.99	0.65	2.35	2.23
Loss of salaried employment	721	1.72	2.53	7.22	10.34	4.48	2.99	0.8	1.74	5.05	10.59	16.2	6.9
Other 1	1825	4.18	10.98	5.15	16.67	20.9	11.94	12.16	8.68	3.09	2.35	2.79	10.34
Robbery/burglary/assault	904	2.95	3.08	2.06	2.87	2.99	1.49	0.73	0.99	1.78		2.51
Severe water shortage	1226	4.67	6.1	2.06	0.57		1.49	1.94	0.74	4.16	3.53	0.84
Total Number		407	6723	97	174	67	67	1497	403	1684	85	358	29

Table

Shocks	Went elsewhere to find work for more than	Borrowed money from relatives	Borrowed money from money lender	Borrowed money from institution e.g. bank	Received help from religious institution	Received help from local NGO	Received help from international NGO	Received help from government	Received help from family and friends	Reduced food consumption	Consumed lower cost but less preferred food	Reduced non food expenditures	Spiritual effort-prayer, sacrifices, co	Did nothing	Other (specify)
Birth in the household	0.28	1.87		0.8	0.68				2.32	0.12	0.52	0.91	1.33	0.79	0
Bread winner jailed	0.28	0.94			0.68			0.36	0.81	0.19			0.33	0.16	0
Break-up of the household	6.08	2.43	1.87	0.8	4.73		0.45	0.36	3.88	0.62	0.87	1.09	4.86	2.75	0
Carjacking				0.8					0.12					0.03	0
Conflict	0.83	0.75	0.93		3.38			6.5	2.32				2.32	0.52	0
Crop disease or crop pests	6.08	3.75	1.87	3.2	1.35		0.89	5.78	2.61	15	6.12	6.36	1.88	7.42	0
Death of household head	1.1	1.31	3.74	0.8	10.14			1.44	6.89		0.35	0.55	5.75	1.84	0
Death of other family member	1.93	11.05	12.15	5.6	28.38	4.76	1.34	1.08	25.83	0.12	1.57	1.09	33.04	11.23	0
Death of working member of household		0.19		0.8	1.35			0.72	1.91		0.17	0.18	2.87	0.55	0
Drought or floods	13.54	9.18	7.48	12	9.46	42.86	28.57	23.83	8.92	29.2	13.81	21.09	9.28	17.07	0
Dwelling damaged, destroyed	0.28	0.19	1.87	0.8	3.38	4.76		1.08	1.74			0.18	0.55	0.33	0
End of regular assistance, aid	1.38	2.25	1.87	0.8				0.72	1.62	1.67	1.92	0.91	1.44	0.85	0
Ethnic/clan clashes	2.76	0.75			1.35		24.55	10.83	1.39	0.31		0.36	0.44	1.75	0
Eviction	2.21	1.12				4.76	6.25	1.81	0.35	0.25			0.22	0.25	0
Fire	0.83	1.69	0.93	4	4.05		1.34	0.72	2.9	0.12			0.99	0.83	0
HIV/aids		0.56	1.87	0.8	2.03	4.76	0.45	8.66	0.81		0.35		1.55	0.29	0
Household business failure, non-agric.	12.43	9.55	23.36	24.8	2.03	4.76	0.89		2.55	1.43	1.57	2.36	1.77	3.16	0
Large fall in sale prices for crops	0.55	0.75	1.87	2.4				0.36	0.52	1.61	19.41	4.36	0.33	3.23	0
Large rise in agricultural input prices	0.55	12.92	1.87	3.2				1.08	1.22	1.61	1.22	2.91	0.22	1.91	0
Large rise in price of food	2.49	7.68	3.74	0.8	1.35	4.76	5.8	0.72	5.5	40.55	43.71	46	0.88	6.85	0
Livestock died	3.87	5.62	4.67	7.2	4.05	4.76	11.16	8.3	5.04	2.67	4.72	4.73	12.93	19.53	0
Livestock were stolen	5.52	1.31			2.7		1.34	7.94	1.27	0.56	1.22	1.09	3.87	4.54	0
Loss of salaried employment	32.32	3	2.8	2.4			0.89		2.72	1.12	0.35	1.82	1.22	1.06	0
Other 1	2.76	15.54	19.63	20.8	11.49	4.76	1.79	5.78	11.46	0.99	0.35	1.27	6.41	2.69	0
Robbery/burglary/assault	1.93	4.31	7.48	7.2	1.35			3.25	2.08	0.31	0.7	1.09	4.09	5.29	0
Severe water shortage		1.31			6.08		14.29	8.66	3.24	1.55	1.05	1.64	1.44	5.09	0
Total Number	362	534	107	125	148	21	224	277	1727	1613	572	550	905	7955	0

Table A5. Second coping option with shocks (using 2015/2016 KIHBS).

Shocks	Overall	No response-coping1	Spent cash savings	Sent children to live with relatives	Sold assets (e.g. Tools, Furniture)	Sold farm land	Rented out farmland	Sold animals	Sold more crops	Worked longer hours or worked more	Other hh members who weren’t working went to work	Started a new business	Removed children from school to work
Birth in the household	328	1.1	1.74		2.19	3.7	2.56	0.68	3.07	2.61			8.7
Bread winner jailed	81	0.29	0.79		1.46		2.56	0.34	0.61	0.37
Break-up of the household	610	2.36	0.47	7.02	2.19			1.18	0.61	3.61	5.66	1.61	4.35
Carjacking	14	0.04						0.17				0.54	4.35
Conflict	231	0.92	0.47	1.75	2.92			0.85	0.61	1		1.08
Crop disease or crop pests	2098	7.88	6.49		2.19	14.81	17.95	3.72	12.27	9.7	1.89	8.6	8.7
Death of household head	565	1.69	3.01	1.75	4.38	7.41	5.13	4.23	1.84	1.74	9.43	1.61	4.35
Death of other family member	2782	9.92	10.44	5.26	10.95	7.41		9.81	11.66	2.11	5.66	2.15
Death of working member of household	186	0.6	0.79	1.75	0.73		2.56	0.51	1.23	0.62	3.77	0.54
Drought or floods	4418	15.69	17.09	33.33	11.68	11.11	2.56	22.17	8.59	15.17	13.21	10.75	21.74
Dwelling damaged, destroyed	167	0.56	0.79	1.75	2.19	3.7	2.56	0.51		1
End of regular assistance, aid	347	1.09	1.11	1.75	0.73	3.7	2.56	1.02		2.11	5.66	2.15	4.35
Ethnic/clan clashes	407	1.76	0.95	3.51				1.35		0.62
Eviction	108	0.27	0.32					0.17		0.25	1.89	0.54	4.35
Fire	239	0.89	0.63				2.56	0.51		1.12		1.61
HIV/aids	142	0.51		3.51	3.65	3.7	2.56	0.17	0.61	0.25
Household business failure, non-agric.	1104	3.94	6.8		10.95	7.41		1.18	1.23	5.22	7.55	31.72
Large fall in sale prices for crops	822	2.78	2.22		0.73	3.7	15.38	0.51	11.66	6.22	5.66	2.69
Large rise in agricultural input prices	662	2.74	3.32		2.92	3.7	15.38	1.86	5.52	2.36	1.89	1.08
Large rise in price of food	3635	11.01	11.08	10.53	6.57		7.69	6.09	12.88	24.5	13.21	5.91	8.7
Livestock died	3157	13.55	10.44	14.04	3.65	14.81		17.6	11.04	4.35	7.55	6.45	21.74
Livestock were stolen	752	3.07	0.32				2.56	1.35	1.23	1.37		2.69	4.35
Loss of salaried employment	721	2.37	2.53	8.77	5.11	3.7	2.56	1.52	1.23	3.73	9.43	12.37
Other 1	1825	5.58	11.39	3.51	19.71	11.11	12.82	17.6	12.27	6.34	7.55	2.69	4.35
Robbery/burglary/assault	904	4	1.74	1.75	4.38			1.35	1.23	1.62		3.23
Severe water shortage	1226	5.41	5.06		0.73			3.55	0.61	1.99
Total Number		18,735	632	57	137	27	39	591	163	804	53	186	23

(Continued)

  Continued

Shocks	Went elsewhere to find work for more than	Borrowed money from relatives	Borrowed money from money lender	Borrowed money from institution e.g. bank	Received help from religious institution	Received help from local NGO	Received help from international NGO	Received help from government	Received help from family and friends	Reduced food consumption	Consumed lower cost but less preferred food	Reduced non food expenditures	Spiritual effort-prayer, sacrifices, co	Did nothing	Other (specify)
Birth in the household		2.63	1.11		3.03				1.9	1.31	0.41	1.03	1.01	1.35	0
Bread winner jailed		0.29	1.11	1.41					0.43		0.41		0.17		0
Break-up of the household	6.02	2.34	5.56		5.3		1.35	0.54	2.94	1.01	1.09	0.95	3.52		0
Carjacking								0.54	0.09				0.5		0
Conflict	0.75	0.58						4.84	0.69	0.1			1.34	1.8	0
Crop disease or crop pests	8.27	3.51	1.11	4.23	1.52		2.7	1.08	2.33	12.37	9.28	9.11	6.03	2.7	0
Death of household head	2.26	4.68	3.33	1.41	10.61	11.76	1.35	1.08	7	0.7	0.82	0.43	3.35	2.25	0
Death of other family member	2.26	9.94	17.78	8.45	40.15	17.65	1.35	1.08	31.98	1.71	1.91	0.69	30.99	8.56	0
Death of working member of household		1.17		1.41	0.76			0.54	2.59	0.3		0.26	1.68		0
Drought or floods	15.79	11.11	10	14.08	6.06	5.88	21.62	32.26	5.53	23.84	24.42	22.51	3.85	35.59	0
Dwelling damaged, destroyed	1.5	0.88			1.52	5.88		1.08	2.07	0.2		0.17		0.9	0
End of regular assistance, aid	4.51	1.75	1.11	2.82	1.52		1.35	1.08	1.99	1.51	1.5	1.8	1.01	1.8	0
Ethnic/clan clashes	2.26		1.11			23.53	16.22	6.45	0.35	0.1		0.17	0.17	2.7	0
Eviction	0.75	1.17		1.41		5.88	6.76	8.6	0.52	0.2	0.14	0.34		0.45	0
Fire		0.29	2.22	2.82	1.52	11.76	2.7	1.08	1.82	0.5	0.55	0.09	1.17		0
HIV/aids				1.41	2.27			3.76	0.95	0.3	0.14	0.17	0.67	0.9	0
Household business failure, non-agric.	6.77	6.43	8.89	12.68	1.52		2.7		2.59	5.63	2.59	1.89	1.17	0.45	0
Large fall in sale prices for crops		1.46	3.33	2.82				0.54	0.26	2.92	2.46	10.57	0.17	2.7	0
Large rise in agricultural input prices	0.75	4.68	8.89	5.63				1.08	0.26	1.41	0.95	1.12	0.5		0
Large rise in price of food	3.76	5.26	2.22	1.41	1.52		2.7	2.15	3.72	29.88	43.66	41.49	1.34	9.01	0
Livestock died	10.53	7.6	1.11	5.63	0.76		10.81	8.06	2.42	6.04	2.59	3.09	17.42	10.81	0
Livestock were stolen	3.01	1.46		1.41		5.88	6.76	9.14	1.21	1.61	1.09	0.34	9.05	4.05	0
Loss of salaried employment	24.81	7.31	6.67	8.45	3.03		1.35	1.08	2.07	2.52	2.46	1.12	1.01	2.25	0
Other 1	1.5	19.01	13.33	9.86	9.09	5.88	2.7	7.53	21.18	1.71	2.18	0.69	10.39	3.15	0
Robbery/burglary/assault	3.01	2.92	7.78	8.45	1.52		2.7		2.16	1.31	0.41	0.77	2.01	4.5	0
Severe water shortage	1.5	3.51	3.33	4.23	8.33	5.88	14.86	6.45	0.95	2.82	0.95	1.2	1.51	4.05	0
Total Number	133	342	90	71	132	17	74	186	1157	994	733	1164	597	222	0

Table A6. Third coping option with shocks (using 2015/2016 KIHBS).

Shocks	Overall	No response-coping1	Spent cash savings	Sent children to live with relatives	Sold assets (e.g. Tools, Furniture)	Sold farm land	Rented out farmland	Sold animals	Sold more crops	Worked longer hours or worked more	Other hh members who weren’t working went to work	Started a new business	Removed children from school to work
Birth in the household	328	1.18	2.05					0.97		1.37	8.33
Bread winner jailed	81	0.3	0.51									2.78
Break-up of the household	610	2.26	1.03	10.53	8.7					3.42		8.33
Carjacking	14	0.04
Conflict	231	0.88	1.03					0.97	3.13			2.78
Crop disease or crop pests	2098	7.59	7.69		4.35		18.18	1.94		13.01	8.33	11.11
Death of household head	565	1.9	2.56				9.09	2.91	9.38	2.74			10
Death of other family member	2782	10.35	6.15		13.04	7.14		6.8	12.5	1.37
Death of working member of household	186	0.66			4.35			0.97	3.13	0.68
Drought or floods	4418	15.49	18.97	21.05	13.04	28.57	27.27	31.07	3.13	26.71	16.67	13.89	50
Dwelling damaged, destroyed	167	0.61	0.51	5.26	4.35			0.97	3.13	0.68
End of regular assistance, aid	347	1.21	0.51	5.26				1.94	3.13	1.37		2.78
Ethnic/clan clashes	407	1.59	0.51		4.35							2.78
Eviction	108	0.3	1.54			7.14		0.97		0.68	8.33	2.78	10
Fire	239	0.87	0.51	5.26	4.35			0.97
HIV/Aids	142	0.49
Household business failure	1104	4.07	0.51		8.7		9.09		3.13	4.11		8.33	10
Large fall in sale prices for crops	822	3.02	2.56			7.14	9.09	0.97	6.25	8.9		2.78
Large rise in agricultural input prices	662	2.54	1.03						6.25	2.74
Large rise in price of food	3635	12.57	32.82	5.26	4.35		9.09	9.71	6.25	15.07	25	8.33	10
Livestock died	3157	11.98	7.69	26.32	4.35	28.57		17.48	9.38	4.11	16.67	5.56	10
Livestock were stolen	752	2.85	0.51						3.13			2.78
Loss of salaried employment	721	2.53	2.05		4.35	7.14		3.88	3.13	4.11	8.33	19.44
Other 1	1825	6.53	5.13	10.53	17.39	14.29	18.18	10.68	15.63	6.16	8.33	2.78
Robbery/burglary/assault	904	3.48	1.54	5.26	4.35				3.13	1.37
Severe water shortage	1226	4.71	2.56	5.26				6.8	6.25	1.37		2.78
Total Number			195	19	23	14	11	103	32	146	12	36	10

Table

Shocks	Went elsewhere to find work for more than	Borrowed money from relatives	Borrowed money from money lender	Borrowed money from institution e.g. bank	Received help from religious institution	Received help from local NGO	Received help from international NGO	Received help from government	Received help from family and friends	Reduced food consumption	Consumed lower cost but less preferred food	Reduced non food expenditures	Spiritual effort-prayer, sacrifices, co	Did nothing	Other (specify)
Birth in the household		2.14						1.27	1.67	1.59	2.67	0.87	0.73		0
Bread winner jailed									0.42	0.63		0.15	0.36		0
Break-up of the household	3.03	2.86			3.33			1.27	2.5	2.54	2.67	0.87	1.09		0
Carjacking		0.71											0.73		0
Conflict	3.03	0.71						3.8	1.25				0.73		0
Crop disease or crop pests	12.12	0.71	12.12	8.33			2.27	2.53	4.17	9.52	9.92	10.01	9.85	9.09	0
Death of household head	6.06	2.14			8.33	25	2.27		11.67	0.95	1.91	1.02	7.66	3.64	0
Death of other family member	9.09	6.43	21.21	8.33	16.67				22.08	3.49	6.11	2.03	24.82	10.91	0
Death of working member of household		2.14			3.33				2.5	0.63	1.15		1.09	1.82	0
Drought or floods	24.24	20	12.12	25	20		34.09	44.3	5.83	18.1	16.03	29.9	10.22	12.73	0
Dwelling damaged, destroyed		0.71			1.67				0.83		0.38	0.29	0.36	1.82	0
End of regular assistance, aid	6.06	1.43					2.27	1.27	1.25	2.22	2.29	2.18	1.09	1.82	0
Ethnic/clan clashes		0.71				25	4.55		1.67	0.32	0.38			1.82	0
Eviction	3.03	1.43			11.67		2.27	6.33	1.25		0.38	0.58	0.36		0
Fire	3.03	1.43	3.03		6.67			1.27	1.67	0.63	0.38	0.58	0.36		0
HIV/Aids		0.71	3.03		1.67		2.27	2.53	1.25	0.63	1.91	0.15	1.09		0
Household business failure	3.03	6.43	6.06	8.33	1.67				0.83	3.49	3.44	4.79	4.38	5.45	0
Large fall in sale prices for crops		2.86	3.03				4.55			3.49	1.53	4.06	1.09	1.82	0
Large rise in agricultural input prices				8.33						3.17	3.44	0.87	0.73		0
Large rise in price of food	3.03	12.14	12.12		1.67	25	2.27	2.53	7.92	24.76	30.53	29.61	5.84	1.82	0
Livestock died	6.06	8.57	6.06		10		25	15.19	2.92	10.16	3.44	3.19	5.84	20	0
Livestock were stolen	3.03	1.43	3.03		3.33	25	2.27	3.8	1.25	1.27	1.53	1.6	2.19	10.91	0
Loss of salaried employment	12.12	5	3.03	8.33	3.33		2.27	8.86	1.67	3.49	4.96	3.05	2.19	1.82	0
Other 1	3.03	13.57	9.09	25	6.67			1.27	22.5	3.17	2.29	1.6	15.33	7.27	0
Robbery/burglary/assault		1.43	6.06	8.33			13.64	3.8	1.67	1.9	1.91	1.6	1.82		0
Severe water shortage		4.29							1.25	3.81	0.76	1.02		7.27	0
Total Number	33	140	33	12	60	4	44	79	240	315	262	689	274	55	26

Table A7. Size of the shocks (in monetary terms) and the incidence of distress sales of farmland (2005–2006 KIHBS).

	First Option		Second Option		Third Option
Cost (KES)	Did not sell land	Sold land	Did not sell land	Sold land	Did not sell land	Sold land
Not indicated
Zero	5117	46	2581	18	1054	3
1–9999	9456	23	4525	15	1907	3
10,000 and above	10,698	77	6311	38	3091	9
Total	25,271	146	13,417	71	6052	15

Table A8: Size of the shocks (in monetary terms) and the incidence of distress sales of farmland (2015–2016 KIHBS).

	First Option		Second Option		Third Option
Cost (KES)	Did not sell land	Sold land	Did not sell land	Sold land	Did not sell land	Sold land
Not indicated	4532	23	1578	5	453	1
Zero	536	0	61	0	10	0
1–9999	9958	7	3104	5	833	3
10,000 and above	12,031	37	4026	17	1557	10
Total	27,057	67	8769	27	2853	14