Critical Systems of Learning and Innovation Competence for Addressing Complexity in Transformations to Agricultural Sustainability

Abstract

Technological innovation is necessary but not sufficient to achieve food security. This article uses interlinked social, ecological and technical systems theory to investigate why agricultural biodiversity-rich developing countries fail to utilize “agroecological competence,” particularly natural resource-based competitive advantage, to achieve food security despite substantial investments in “technological competence” development. Empirical study involves a critical examination of two food security strategies: improving subsistence agriculture to contribute to Nepal's national food security strategies, and promoting high value agriculture integrating Indian farmers into global commodity supply chains. Findings from these countries at very different stages of economic agricultural development suggest that low and middle-income countries, irrespective of their economic growth, cannot succeed unless technological competences are complemented by critical systems of “learning competence.”

Keywords:

• socio-ecotechnical systems
• critical systems of learning competence
• complexity
• agricultural biodiversity
• India
• Nepal

Notes

Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/wjsa

1. In their book, India 2020: A Vision for the New Millennium, Kalam and Rajan (1998) envision India as a science and technology superpower and a developed nation by the year 2020. Similarly, Poudel (2008, 2009, 2011) presents a conceptual framework of Eight “Ja” (Asta “Ja” in Nepali)—Jal (water), Jamin (land), Jarajuri (plants), Janawar (animals), Jangle (forest), Jadibuti (medicinal and aromatic plants), Jalabayu (climate), and Jansakti (manpower)—for economic prosperity of renewable natural resource rich nations of the Global South, bringing an astonishing case from Nepal, one of the poorest countries of the world currently at the aftermath of a decade-long armed conflict. Out of these eight Jas, the first five were mentioned by Dr. Baburam Bhattarai in his BBC interview Shaja Sawal program on April 20, 2008 in his capacity of Finance Minister of Nepal.

2. Typically natural science and engineering research involve invention and technology development while social science and humanities research rumble around theory testing and theory building. Unless these research results—technology and theory—are put into practice—policy, programs, and projects—it will be impossible to generate development impacts at scale. In response to this challenge of the dominant scientific practice, it has been increasingly recognized that there is a need of engaging potential users of the research results in scientific research through processes such as participatory action research, community-based participatory research and development and a range of other experiential learning opportunities.

3. The eight centers of crop diversity are as follows: 1) Southern Mexico and Central America, 2) South America, 3) Mediterranean, 4) Middle East, 5) Ethiopia, 6) Central Asia, 7) South Asia, and 8) China.

4. Top five countries with highest mango yield are Cape Verde, Samoa, Cook Islands, Occupied Palestinian Territory, and Puerto Rico.

5. While LI-BIRD researchers were mostly safe and sound because of their extraordinary research and development work, most nongovernmental organizations abandoned their research and development interventions in rural communities, and public sector scientists and extension agents remained vigilant about security situations due to the increasing civil unrest in the country during the decade-long war between Maoist insurgents and the government forces.

6. The initial form of Vijaya existed only until 1999. Then from 1999 to 2002, the Vijaya was renamed as the Vijaya Sun Gold Agri Farms and Exports Ltd., a public limited company. The Vijaya was again restructured as the Association of Fruit and Vegetable Growers representing 217 individual members in order to revitalize collective action in mango export. In 2006, one of the key actors of the Vijaya, who ran a family business of agricultural input sales since 1975, called Vijaya Laxmi Agro Service Centre, diversified its activities to include marketing of agricultural produce in response to the failure of Vijaya to serve its members (Pant et al. 2012).

7. Local classifications of small, medium and large holdings respectively refers to mango orchards of 5 acres or less, 6–10 acres, and more than 10 acres.