Basic mobility, accidental falls, and lifetime physical activity among rural and urban community-dwelling older adults: a population-based study in Northern Iceland

Figures & data

Table 1. Participants’ background characteristics in total and by residence, gender, and age-group

		Residence			Gender			Age-group
Variables	Total sample N = 175	Urban n = 105	Rural n = 70	p-value	Man n = 100	Woman n = 75	p-value	Younger-old  n = 104	Older-old  n = 71	p-value
Age, years, M (SD) [range]	74.2 (6.3) [65–92]	74.4 (6.4) [65–92]	73.9 (6.2) [65–89]	0.550	74.3 (6.2) [65–92]	74 (6.4)[65–92]	0.727	–	–	–
Gender, man, n (%)	100 (57)	63 (60)	37 (53)	0.350	–	–	–	55 (52.9)	45(63)	0.168
Residence, urban, n (%)	105 (60)	–	–	–	63 (63)	42 (56)	0.350	61 (59)	44 (62)	0.660
Educational level, primary school only, n (%)	78 (45.1)	40 (38.1)	38 (55.9)	0.022*	36 (36.0)	42 (57.5)	0.005	43 (42.2)	35 (49.3)	0.353
Medical diagnoses, M (SD) [range]	2.9 (1.7) [0–9]	3.2 (1.7) [0–8]	2.5 (1.8) [0–9]	0.009*	2.8 (1.7) [0–8]	2.9 (1.8) [0–9]	0.765	2.8 (1.6) [0–7]	3.0 (1.9) [0–9]	0.289
Medications, M (SD) [range]	3 (2.7) [0–10]	3.5 (2.8) [0–10]	2.3 (2.5) [0–10]	0.004*	3.2 (2.8) [0–10]	2.9 (2.7) [0–10]	0.451	2.5 (2.5) [0–10]	3.9 (2.8) [0–10]	<0.001*
Living alone, n (%)	40 (22.9)	29 (27.6)	11 (15.7)	0.066	19 (19)	21 (28)	0.161	19 (18.3)	21 (29.6)	0.080
Indoor walking aid, n (%)	4 (2.3)	2 (1.9)	2 (3)	0.654	2 (2)	2 (2.8)	0.746	4 (3.8)	0 (0)	0.104
Outdoor walking aid, n (%)	34 (19.4)	19 (18.1)	15 (21.4)	0.585	15 (15)	19 (25.3)	0.087	12 (11.5)	22 (31)	0.001*
BMI, kg/m^2, M (SD) [range]	28 (5) [19–56]	28 (5) [19–46]	28 (6) [20–56]	0.739	28 (5) [20–41]	28 (6) [19–56]	0.940	29 (6) [20–56]	27 (5) [19–41]	0.082

Comparisons by residence, gender, and older age-groups are based on independent t-test for continuous data and Pearson’s chi-square test for binary data. Significant associations are marked with * (p < 0.05). M: mean. SD: standard deviation. Range: highest and lowest value. BMI: Body Mass Index. Younger-old: ages 65-74. Older old: ages 75-92. Percentages (%) are based on valid data for each variable. Missing data; education (n = 2), medical diagnoses (n = 2), indoor walking aid (n = 4).

Table 2. Falls in the past year, basic mobility, late-life fall risk and lifetime physical activity in total and by residence, gender, and age-group

		Residence			Gender			Age-group
Variables	Total sample N = 175	Urban n = 105	Rural n = 70	p-value	Man n = 100	Woman n = 75	p-value	Younger-old n = 104	Older-old  n = 71	p-value
Physical functioning
Fall, ≥ 1 fall/year, n (%)	46 (26.3)	13 (12.4)	33 (47)	<0.001*	29 (29)	17 (22.7)	0.346	32 (30.1)	14 (19.7)	0.103
Recurrent falls, ≥ 2 falls/year, n (%)	25 (14.4)	3 (2.9)	22 (31.4)	<0.001*	19 (19)	6 (8.1)	0.043*	18 (17.5)	7 (9.9)	0.159
Basic mobility, TUG, sec, M (SD) [range]	10.4 (2.7) [5–24]	10.1 (2.4) [6–18]	10.8 (3.1) [5–24]	0.111	10.2 (2.3) [6–17]	10.54 (3.2) [5–24]	0.438	9.8 (2.5)[5–23]	11.2 (2.9) [6–24]	<0.001*
Late-life fall risk, TUG ≥ 12 sec, n (%)	45 (26.8)	22 (21.2)	23 (35.9)	0.036*	26 (27.1)	19 (26.4)	0.920	19 (19)	26 (38.2)	0.006*
PA in adolescence				0.001*			<0.001*			0.562
Never, n (%)	16 (9.3)	13 (12.5)	3 (4.4)		5 (5.1)	11 (15.1)		8 (7.8)	8 (11.4)
1–3 days/week, n (%)	47 (27.3)	35 (33.7)	12 (17.7)		21 (21.2)	26 (35.6)		32 (31.4)	15 (21.4)
Most days of the week, n (%)	109 (63.4)	56 (53.8)	53 (77.9)		73 (73.7)	36 (49.3)		62 (60.8)	47 (67.2)
PA in young adulthood				<0.001*			0.003*			0.391
Never, n (%)	24 (14)	21 (20.2)	3 (4.4)		7 (7.1)	17 (23.3)		13 (12.8)	11 (15.7)
1–3 days/week, n (%)	56 (32.5)	46 (44.2)	10 (14.7)		31 (31.3)	25 (34.2)		39 (38.2)	17 (24.3)
Most days of the week, n (%)	92 (53.5)	37 (35.6)	55 (80.9)		61 (61.6)	31 (42.5)		50 (49)	42 (60)
PA in middle adulthood				<0.001*			0.069			0.812
Never, n (%)	29 (16.9)	25 (24)	4 (5.9)		13 (13.1)	16 (21.9)		12 (11.8)	17 (24.3)
1–3 days/week, n (%)	60 (34.9)	43 (41.4)	17 (25)		33 (33.3)	27 (37)		45 (44.1)	15 (21.4)
Most days of the week, n (%)	83 (48.2)	36 (34.6)	47 (69.1)		53 (53.6)	30 (41.1)		45 (44.1)	38 (54.3)
PA in late adulthood				0.004*			0.620			0.290
Never, n (%)	37 (21.5)	32 (30.8)	5 (7.4)		18 (18.2)	19 (26)		17 (16.7)	20 (28.6)
1–3 days/week, n (%)	80 (46.5)	43 (41.3)	37 (54.4)		50 (50.5)	30 (41.1)		52 (51)	28 (40)
Most days of the week, n (%)	55 (32)	29 (27.9)	26 (38.2)		31 (31.3)	24 (32.9)		33 (32.3)	22 (31.4)

Comparisons by residence, gender, and older age-groups are based on independent t-test for continuous data and Pearson’s chi-square test for binary data. Significant associations are marked with * (p < 0.05). M: mean. SD: standard deviation. Range: highest and lowest value. TUG: Timed Up & Go test. PA: Physical activity. Adolescence: ages 12–19. Young adulthood: ages 20–39. Middle adulthood: ages 40–65. Late adulthood: age 65 to present. Younger-old: ages 65-74. Older old: ages 75-92. Percentages (%) are based on valid data for each variable. Missing data; falls (n = 1), TUG (n = 9), PA history (n = 3).

Table 3. At least one fall in the past year and its association with seven independent variables, in total and stratified by residence

Independent variables	Univariate regression		Multivariable model 1		Multivariable model 2*
	OR (95% CI)	p-value	OR (95% CI)	p-value	OR (95% CI)	p-value
Total sample
PA in adolescence	1.9 (1.04–3.5)	0.038*	1.5 (0.7–3.1)	0.274	1.5 (0.7–3.2)	0.282
PA in young adulthood	1.8 (1.1–3.2)	0.021*	2.0 (0.9–4.4)	0.083	2.1 (1.0–4.7)	0.065
PA in middle adulthood	1.2 (0.8–1.9)	0.411	0.6 (0.3–1.3)	0.163	0.6 (0.3–1.3)	0.165
PA in late adulthood	1.3 (0.8–2.0)	0.320	1.4 (0.7–2.7)	0.311	1.3 (0.7–2.6)	0.393
Residence	0.2 (0.09–0.3)	<0.001*
Gender	0.7 (0.4–1.4)	0.347			0.9 (0.4–1.9)	0.742
Age-group	0.6 (0.3–1.1)	0.105			0.5 (0.2–1.0)	0.065
Urban
PA in adolescence	1.7 (0.7–4.5)	0.275	2.5 (0.7–8.3)	0.143	2.5 (0.7–8.9)	0.145
PA in young adulthood	1.2 (0.5–2.7)	0.685	1.3 (0.4–3.9)	0.683	1.3 (0.4–4.2)	0.669
PA in middle adulthood	0.7 (0.3–1.5)	0.357	0.2 (0.05–0.9)	0.038*	0.2 (0.05–0.9)	0.032*
PA in late adulthood	1.1 (0.5–2.3)	0.885	2.9 (0.8–10.6)	0.103	2.7 (0.8–9.3)	0.121
Gender	0.6 (0.2–2.2)	0.471			0.7 (0.2–2.7)	0.598
Age-group	0.6 (0.2–2.0)	0.389			0.5 (0.1–1.9)	0.313
Rural
PA in adolescence	1.2 (0.5–2.9)	0.738	1.3 (0.5–3.9)	0.593	1.2 (0.4–3.8)	0.707
PA in young adulthood	1.0 (0.4–2.4)	0.912	1.2 (0.3–4.9)	0.756	1.0 (0.2–4.3)	0.973
PA in middle adulthood	0.7 (0.3–1.7)	0.446	0.6 (0.2–2.1)	0.416	0.8 (0.2–2.8)	0.668
PA in late adulthood	0.8 (0.4–1.8)	0.631	0.9 (0.4–2.5)	0.908	0.6 (0.8–0.3)	0.609
Gender	0.6 (0.2–1.4)	0.222			0.4 (0.1–1.3)	0.134
Age-group	0.5 (0.2–1.4)	0.182			0.4 (0.1–1.1)	0.084

Statistics are based on binary logistic regression analysis. Significant associations are marked with * (p < 0.05). OR: odds ratio. CI: confidence interval. PA: Physical activity. Adolescence: ages 12–19. Young adulthood: ages 20–39. Middle adulthood: ages 40–65. Late adulthood: age 65 to present.

Rating scales for the independent variables: Physical Activity: never (0), 1–3 days/week (1), most days of the week (2). Residence: rural (1), urban (2). Gender: man (1), woman (2). Age-group: ages 65–74 (1), ages 75–92 (2).

Table 4. Recurrent falls in the past year and the association with seven independent variables, in total and stratified by residence

Independent variables	Univariate regression		Multivariable model 1		Multivariable model 2
	OR (95% CI)	p-value	OR (95% CI)	p-value	OR (95% CI)	p-value
Total sample
PA in adolescence	1.8 (0.8–3.9)	0.143	0.2 (0.3–2.5)	0.868	0.8 (0.3–2.2)	0.630
PA in young adulthood	3.0 (1.3–7.0)	0.011*	2.3 (0.7–7.1)	0.149	2.4 (0.7–7.5)	0.149
PA in middle adulthood	2.6 (1.2–5.5)	0.012*	1.4 (0.5–4.0)	0.552	1.5 (0.5–4.5)	0.454
PA in late adulthood	2.0 (1.1–3.8)	0.031*	1.4 (0.6–3.1)	0.430	1.4 (0.6–3.1)	0.423
Residence	0.1 (0.02–0.2)	<0.001*
Gender	0.4 (0.1–1.0)	0.049*			0.4 (0.1–1.2)	0.091
Age-group	0.5 (0.2–1.3)	0.164			0.4 (0.2–1.1)	0.083
Urban
PA in adolescence	0.9 (0.2–4.2)	0.853	1.1 (0.2–8.2)	0.910
PA in young adulthood	0.7 (0.2–3.5)	0.711	0.7 (0.1–6.4)	0.786
PA in middle adulthood	0.8 (0.2–3.7)	0.806	0.7 (0.1–9.2)	0.788
PA in late adulthood	1.1 (0.2–4.7)	0.947	1.5 (0.2–14.3)	0.740
Gender	–	–
Age-group	–	–
Rural
PA in adolescence	1.2 (0.5–3.3)	0.689	0.8 (0.2–2.7)	0.671	0.6 (0.1–2.3)	0.415
PA in young adulthood	1.9 (0.6–6.3)	0.289	1.4 (0.3–7.2)	0.654	0.9 (0.2–5.1)	0.919
PA in middle adulthood	2.0 (0.7–5.4)	0.186	1.4 (0.3–6.0)	0.623	2.0 (0.4–9.3)	0.376
PA in late adulthood	1.9 (0.8–4.5)	0.171	1.5 (0.5–4.4)	0.421	1.6 (0.5–5.4)	0.473
Gender	0.3 (0.1–0.9)	0.028*			0.2 (0.1–0.7)	0.013*
Age-group	0.7 (0.2–1.9)	0.433			0.5 (0.1–1.6)	0.227

Statistics are based on binary logistic regression analysis. We were unable to run all binary logistic regression analyses in the urban group, due to zero cell count among women and the older-old. Significant associations are marked with * (p < 0.05). OR: odds ratio. CI: confidence interval. PA: Physical activity. Adolescence: ages 12–19. Young adulthood: ages 20–39. Middle adulthood: ages 40–65. Late adulthood: age 65 to present.

Rating scales for the independent variables: Physical Activity: never (0), 1–3 days/week (1), most days of the week (2). Residence: rural (1), urban (2). Gender: man (1), woman (2). Age-group: ages 65–74 (1), ages 75–92 (2).

Table 5. Late-life basic mobility (Timed Up & Go score in sec) and its association with seven independent variables, in total and stratified by residence

Independent variables	Univariate regression		Multivariable model 1		Multivariable model 2
	β (95% CI)	p-value	β (95% CI)	p-value	β (95% CI)	p-value
Total sample
PA in adolescence	0.002 (−0.023–0.027)	0.880	−0.008 (−0.038–0.023)	0.624	−0.003 (−0.034–0.027)	0.829
PA in young adulthood	0.007 (−0.015–0.03)	0.516	0.006 (−0.027–0.040)	0.710	0.004 (−0.028–0.037)	0.796
PA in middle adulthood	0.006 (−0.016–0.028)	0.610	0.026 (−0.010–0.063)	0.152	0.026 (−0.009–0.061)	0.151
PA in late adulthood	−0.014 (−0.037–0.008)	0.214	−0.034 (−0.064- −0.003)	0.033*	−0.028 (−0.058–0.002)	0.070
Residence	−0.025 (−0.058–0.008)	0.133
Gender	0.009 (−0.024–0.041)	0.598			0.019 (−0.014–0.053)	0.263
Age-group	0.058 (0.026–0.089)	<0.001*			0.056 (0.023–0.088)	<0.001*
Urban
PA in adolescence	−0.008 (−0.036–0.020)	0.567	−0.015 (−0.050–0.021)	0.410	−0.011 (−0.045–0.023)	0.516
PA in young adulthood	<0.001 (−0.027–0.027)	0.982	0.012 (−0.026–0.049)	0.548	0.005 (−0.032–0.041)	0.801
PA in middle adulthood	−0.006 (−0.03–0.020)	0.661	0.001 (−0.041–0.044)	0.954	0.006 (−0.035–0.047)	0.766
PA in late adulthood	−0.009 (−0.035–0.016)	0.476	−0.013 (−0.050–0.025)	0.505	−0.012 (−0.048–0.023)	0.486
Gender	0.009 (−0.031–0.048)	0.654			0.006 (−0.035–0.048)	0.771
Age-group	0.070 (0.033–0.107)	<0.001*			0.069 (0.031–0.107)	<0.001*
Rural
PA in adolescence	0.013 (−0.04–0.066)	0.618	0.027 (−0.034–0.088)	0.380	0.029 (−0.035–0.092)	0.370
PA in young adulthood	0.001 (−0.054–0.056)	0.969	−0.032 (−0.108–0.044)	0.403	−0.028 (−0.107–0.051)	0.477
PA in middle adulthood	0.016 (−0.035–0.066)	0.533	0.066 (−0.005–0.137)	0.069	0.061 (−0.014–0.135)	0.107
PA in late adulthood	−0.046 (−0.095–0.002)	0.060	−0.079 (−0.135- −0.022)	0.007*	−0.073 (−0.135- −0.012)	0.020*
Gender	0.004 (−0.053−0.062)	0.881			0.015 (−0.047–0.078)	0.627
Age-group	0.040 (−0.018–0.169)	0.169			0.018 (−0.046–0.082)	0.571

Statistics are based on linear regression analysis and the dependent variable is a log-transformed (log10) Timed Up & Go test score (TUG). Higher score on TUG reflects worse basic mobility. Significant associations are marked with * (p < 0.05). CI: confidence interval. PA: Physical activity. Adolescence: ages 12–19. Young adulthood: ages 20–39. Middle adulthood: ages 40–65. Late adulthood: age 65 to present.

Rating scales for the independent variables: Physical Activity: never (0), 1–3 days/week (1), most days of the week (2). Residence: rural (1), urban (2). Gender: man (1), woman (2). Age-group: ages 65–74 (1), ages 75–92 (2).

Table 6. Late-life fall risk and its association with seven independent variables, in total and stratified by residence

Independent variables	Univariate regression		Multivariable model 1		Multivariable model 2
	OR (95% CI)	p-value	OR (95% CI)	p-value	OR (95% CI)	p-value
Total sample
PA in adolescence	1.1 (0.7–2.0)	0.618	1.0 (0.5–1.9)	0.940	1.0 (0.5–2.1)	0.928
PA in young adulthood	1.2 (0.8–2.0)	0.412	1.1 (0.5–2.2)	0.852	1.0 (0.5–2.1)	0.989
PA in middle adulthood	1.3 (0.8–2.0)	0.355	1.5 (0.7–3.3)	0.307	1.5 (0.7–3.4)	0.301
PA in late adulthood	1.0 (0.6–1.6)	0.882	0.7 (0.4–1.4)	0.319	0.8 (0.4–1.5)	0.455
Residence	0.5 (0.24–0.96)	0.037*			…
Gender	1.0 (0.5–1.9)	0.920			1.2 (0.6–2.6)	0.630
Age-group	2.6 (1.3–5.3)	0.007*			2.6 (1.3–5.3)	0.009*
Urban
PA in adolescence	1.0 (0.5–1.9)	0.890	0.9 (0.4–2.1)	0.819	1.0 (0.4–2.6)	0.949
PA in young adulthood	1.0 (0.5–2.0)	0.903	1.0 (0.4–2.5)	1.000	0.8 (0.3–2.3)	0.730
PA in middle adulthood	1.2 (0.6–2.2)	0.647	1.2 (0.4–3.2)	0.787	1.3 (0.4–4.3)	0.628
PA in late adulthood	1.2 (0.6–2.1)	0.653	1.1 (0.4–2.5)	0.910	1.0 (0.4–2.9)	0.959
Gender	1.3 (0.5–3.4)	0.586			1.4 (0.5–4.2)	0.547
Age-group	5.1 (1.8–14.6)	0.002*			5.2 (1.8–15.2)	0.002*
Rural
PA in adolescence	1.1 (0.4–3.0)	0.785	1.6 (0.5–5.2)	0.425	1.5 (0.5–5.0)	0.506
PA in young adulthood	0.9 (0.3–2.3)	0.795	0.7 (0.2–3.2)	0.666	0.6 (0.1–3.0)	0.530
PA in middle adulthood	0.9 (0.36–2.1)	0.783	1.6 (0.4–6.4)	0.506	1.9 (0.4–8.1)	0.398
PA in late adulthood	0.4 (0.2–1.1)	0.084	0.3 (0.1–1.0)	0.051	0.3 (0.1–1.0)	0.057
Gender	0.6 (0.2–1.7)	0.354			0.6 (0.2–2.0)	0.412
Age-group	1.5 (0.5–4.2)	0.460			0.8 (0.2–2.8)	0.771

Statistics are based on binary logistic regression analysis. Significant associations are marked with * (p < 0.05). OR: odds ratio. CI: confidence interval. PA: Physical activity. Adolescence: ages 12–19. Young adulthood: ages 20–39. Middle adulthood: ages 40–65. Late adulthood: age 65 to present.

Rating scales for the independent variables: Physical Activity: never (0), 1–3 days/week (1), most days of the week (2). Residence: rural (1), urban (2). Gender: man (1), woman (2). Age-group: ages 65–74 (1), ages 75–92 (2).