Marine sources as an unexplored bone tissue reconstruction material -A review

Figures & data

Figure 1. The biological process of cell regeneration or repair in the body.

Table 1. Composition of marine sources as bone regenerative materials.

100%
40% organic	25% Water	35% Inorganic
Bio-silica, bio-ceramic, such as β-TCP and HA, and bioactive glasses.		90% Collagenous matrix (Mainly type 1)	10% non-collagenous proteins (Osteopathic, vitronectin, bone sialoprotein, dentin matrix protein-1, and others)

Figure 2. Marine collagen v/s freshwater collagen

Table 2. Marine flora and fauna-derived bio-molecular compounds with their application in the regenerative field.

No	Source	Bio-Molecular Compounds	Application	Processing Method	Reference
1	Seashell	Tri-calcium phosphates, hydroxyapatite, and calcium phosphate	Bone substitute or repair	-	[101]
2	Marine skeleton	Strontium, magnesium, carbonate, sodium, calcium phosphates	Bone tissue, maxillofacial and dental regeneration	-	[102]
3	Nacre	Calcium carbonate	Dental (regeneration)	-	[103]
4	Fish (skin, bone, fins) Sponge, Jellyfish	Collagen	Hard & soft tissue regeneration. Cartilage, bone, vascular, cardiac reconstruction, corneal defects, arthritis, obesity, oral mucosa & bone defect	Chemically or enzymatically hydrolyzed	[104]
5	Bryozoans Seaweed (brown algae) Bacteria	Alginate	Orthopedic surgery, bone and cartilage regeneration, stem cell transplantation	Freeze-dried, aggregated, or acid -precipitated	[105]
6	Crab, Shrimp, Krill, lobster, Crayfish, Plankton	Chitin and Chitosan	Implantation of mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow (BMSCs)	Chemically hydrolyzed, enzymatic, or fermentative method	[106]
7	Squid Seaweed (brown algae)	Fucoidan	Osteoarthritis, human osteoblast proliferation, bone regeneration	Precipitation method	[107]
8	Sponge, Corals, Snail, shells, Cuttlefish	Hydroxyapatite	Bone and tooth regeneration	Thermal calcinated, hydro-thermalized, radiofrequency thermal plasma, ultrasonic precipitation, reverse microemulsion.	[108]
9	Sponge	Bio-silica	Bone, cartilage reconstruction	Thermal calcination method	[49]

Figure 3. Bone formation process.

Figure 4. Molecular mechanism of bone regeneration.

Table 3. List of Marine source-derived bio-ceramic xenografts available in market.

Sl No.	Name of the Bio-ceramic xenograft	Compositions present in Bio-ceramic xenograft	Market Available (Company)	Used in Biomedical Applications
1	Bio-Coral®	Natural coral calcium carbonate bone transplant alternative that is entirely mineral (99% calcium carbonate)	Bio-Coral Inc	Spine surgery, tibial osteotomies, hip fractures, trephine hole replacement, fracture repair, osteoporosis; maxillo-facial reconstruction and cosmetic surgery, bone defects caused by tooth loss or periodontal disease
2	Pro-Osteon®200 R	The outer layer protects the coral calcium carbonate matrix. Calcium phosphate with a thickness of 2–10 m. Pore diameter: 190–230 m. In 6–18 months, there is significant resorption.	Zimmer Biomet	Indicated for bone holes or gaps that are not intrinsic to the skeletal system’s stability.
3	Pro-Osteon®500 R	Coral calcium carbonate matrix with a 2–10 m thick calcium phosphate outer layer. 435 m is the median pore diameter. In 6–18 months, resorption is significant.	Zimmer Biomet	In the case of cervical fusion, it is recommended that it be lightly packed into bone holes or gaps in the skeletal system (i.e. the extremities, spine, and pelvis).
4	CoreBone® Coross®	Coral calcium carbonate crystals (>95%) as aragonite enriched with silicon, strontium, and other non-organic elements. Calcium, Si, and Sr are required for bone mineralization.	Corebone/DSI, Dental Solutions Israel	Maxillofacial and orthopedic surgery indications Interconnected porosity allows for 3D bone formation with high fusion rates and little strength loss.
5	Frios®Algipore®	Hydrothermal conversion of the algae Corallina official’s initial calcium carbonate yields hydroxyapatite. Particle sizes range from 0.3 to 2 mm, with pores ranging from 5 to 10 m.	Dentsply Sirona	Following tooth extraction, atrophic maxillary bone augmentation, periimplantitis lesions, and alveolar ridge alteration

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