Toxic metals in cement induced hematological and DNA damage as well as carcinogenesis in occupationally-Exposed block-factory workers in Lagos, Nigeria

Figures & data

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the block factory workers and control group selected in Oshodi, Lagos.

Characteristic	Control	Worker	P-value
Age (years)	44.50 ± 0.07	44.90 ± 0.03	0.001
Weight (kg)	67.30 ± 1.98	66.91 ± 1.02	0.777
Height (m)	1.59 ± 0.01	1.60 ± 0.02	0.317
BMI (kg/m^2)	24.47 ± 2.01	23.71 ± 0.03	0.547
Skin texture	Normal	Varied between normal and dry

Values without an asterisk (*) are not significantly different from control at p ≥ 0.05 (Student’s t-test)

Table 2. Mean levels of heavy metals in the blood plasma of block factory workers and control group selected in Oshodi, Lagos.

Element [mg/kg)	Control	Worker	P-value	[34]
Ca	8.50 ± 0.95	60.23 ± 2.72	0.00*	8–10
Si	0.09 ± 0.01	1.53 ± 0.49	0.007*	0.1
Al	3.0 ± 0.50	8.50 ± 0.02	0.00*	5.0
Cr	0.04 ± 0.02	1.21 ± 0.03	0.00*	0.5
Pb	0.05 ± 0.02	0.05 ± 0.02	0.830	0.05
Fe	0.12 ± 0.01	0.27 ± 0.02	0.003*	0.1
Cu	0.09 ± 0.01	0.15 ± 0.02	0.006*	0.1

OSHA stands for Occupational Safety and Health Administration; Values with an asterisk (*) are significantly different from control at p ≤ 0.05 (Student’s t-test)

Table 3. Mean levels of the hematological parameters of the block factory workers and control group selected in Oshodi, Lagos.

Parameter	Control	Worker	P-value	Normal range [41]
PCV (L/L)	0.37 ± 0.04	0.28 ± 0.02	0.027*	0.36–0.48
Hb (g/dL)	12.11 ± 0.95	9.11 ± 0.02	0.005*	11.5–15.5
RBC (mc/mm^3)	4.89 ± 0.25	3.59 ± 0.03	0.001*	4.35–5.653
WBC (c/mm^3)	5634 ± 4.00	7503 ± 3.00	0.00*	3400–9600

MFMER is short for Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research; Values with an asterisk (*) are significantly different from control at p ≤ 0.05 (Student’s t-test)

Table 4. Mean levels of biomarkers of organ damage in the blood plasma of the block factory workers and control group selected in Oshodi, Lagos.

Biomarker	Control	Worker	P-value	Normal range
Albumen (g/dL)	3.95 ± 0.04	2.65 ± 0.03	0.00*	3.4–5.4 [49]
GLDH (U/L)	3.01 ± 0.01	12.00 ± 0.01	0.00*	≤ 7.0 [50]
KIM-1(ng/ml)	0.91 ± 0.00	2.30 ± 0.02	0.00*	<1.0 [51]

UCSF is short for University of California San Francisco, DDSG stands for DiasyDiagnostic Systems GmbH, and AII means Advanced ImmunoChemical Incorporation, Values with an asterisk (*) are significantly different from control at p ≤ 0.05 (Student’s t-test)

Table 5. Mean levels of biomarkers of DNA damage and carcinogenicity in the blood plasma of the block factory workers and control group selected in Oshodi, Lagos.

Biomarker	Control	Worker	P-value	Normal range
8.0HDGI (ng/ml)	16.31 ± 0.01	21.41 ± 0.02	0.00*	<27.72  [66]
CEA (ng/ml)	1.30 ± 0.03	4.62 ± 0.02	0.00*	0–2.5 [67]
TAC (µg/ml)	50.31 ± 0.01	32.00 ± 0.03	0.00*	>40 [68]
MDA (nmol/ml)	3.15 ± 0.05	5.46 ± 0.06	0.00*	2.0–4.6 [69]

CTCA is short for Cancer Treatment Center of America; Values with an asterisk (*) are significantly different from control at p ≤ 0.05 (Student’s t-test)

OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) (2022). Permissible exposure limits – annotated tables. Available from https://www.osha.gov/annotated-pels/table-z-1 (Accessed 2022 Mar 10).

 Google Scholar

MFMER (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research) (2022). Complete blood count (CBC). Available from https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/complete-blood-count/about/pac-20384919 (Accessed 2022 Mar 10).

 Google Scholar

UCSF (University of California San Francisco) (2022). Albumin blood (serum) test. Available from https://www.ucsfhealth.org/medical-tests/albumin-blood-(serum)-test# (Accessed 2022 Mar 10).

 Google Scholar

DDSG (DiasyDiagnostic Systems GmbH) (2022). Glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH). Available from https://www.diasys-diagnostics.com/service-area/support/reference-ranges/analyte/glutamate-dehydrogenase-gldh/analyte.show (Accessed 2022 Mar 10).

 Google Scholar

AII (Advanced ImmunoChemical Incorporation) (2020). Kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1): early diagnostic urinary marker. Available at https://www.advimmuno.com/2017/06/kidney-injury-molecule-1-kim-1-early-diagnostic-urinary-marker/ (Accessed 2020 Mar 10).

 Google Scholar

Kondkar AA, Tahira S, Taif AA, et al. Increased plasma levels of 8-Hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in patients with pseudoexfoliation glaucoma. J Ophthalmol. 2019;2019:8319563. Article ID.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

CTCA (Cancer Treatment Center of America). (2022). CEA test. Available from https://www.cancercenter.com/diagnosing-cancer/lab-tests/cea-test# (Accessed 2022 Mar 10).

 Google Scholar

Konuganti K, Seshan H, Zope S, et al. A comparative evaluation of whole blood total antioxidant capacity using a novel nitrobluetetrazolium reduction test in patients with periodontitis and healthy subjects: a randomized, controlled trial. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2012;16(4):620–622.

 Google Scholar

Angirekula S, Atti L, Atti S. Estimation of serum MDA (Malondialdehyde) in various morphological types and clinical stages of age related (senile cataract). Int J Adv Med. 2018;5:674–680.

 Google Scholar