Training of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A game-based approach in adolescents presenting with below average IQ

Figures & data

Table 1. Participants’ characteristics

Average IQ		Percentage of participants presenting with a specific diagnosis
VIQ	PIQ	ADHD	Dyslexia	SLI	NVLD	Tourette’s Syndrome	Anxiety	Depression
75.67 (7.96)	80.12 (13.84)	59.38%	31.25%	12.50%	3.12%	3.12%	6.25%	6.25%

Notes: Numbers in brackets represents standard deviation. ADHD = Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, SLI = Specific language impairment, NVLD = Non verbal learning disorder.

Table 2. Neuropsychological tests administered at pre and post-intervention

Domain	Pre-test	Post-test	Task
Fluid intelligence	TONI-4—Form A	TONI-4—Form B	Completing visual matrices in a test with two equivalent forms
Fluid intelligence	WISC-IV—PRI	WASI—PIQ	Completing visual matrices (matrix reasoning) and assembling blocks (blocks) to reproduce a template
Crystallized intelligence	WISC-IV—VCI	WASI—VIQ	Answering questions about lexical knowledge and assessing verbal elaboration (vocabulary) and verbal abstraction (similarities)
Receptive lexical knowledge	PPVT—Form A	PPVT—Form B	Pointing to the image corresponding to a word or concept among different images
Verbal fluency and executive functions	D-KEFS—Verbal fluency, form A	D-KEFS—Verbal fluency, form B	Producing as many words as possible from a given letter, category, or switching from one category to another within 60 s
Verbal working memory	WISC-IV—Digit span subtest	WISC-IV—Digit span subtest	Repeating a sequence of numbers forward then backward
Visual working memory	WNV—Visual span subtest	WNV—Visual span subtest	Reproducing a spatial sequence of moves on blocks forward then backward

Abbreviations: DKEFS = Delis-Kaplan executive functions system (Delis et al., 2001); PPVT = Peabody picture vocabulary test 4th edition (Dunn & Dunn, 2007); TONI-4 = Test of non-verbal intelligence, 4th edition (Brown et al., 2010a); WASI = Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence (Wechsler, 1999); WISC-IV = Wechsler intelligence scale for children, 4th edition (Wechsler, 2003).

Table 3. Games used in GAME-fluid and GAME-crystallized intervention programs

GAME-fluid		GAME-crystallized
Game	Function	Game	Function
Tilt by ThinkFun	Planning, inhibition, fluid reasoning	Vocabulon by Megableu	Receptive vocabulary, verbal elaboration
Chocolate-Fix by ThinkFun	Inhibition, fluid reasoning, integration	Defin’Images by McWiz	Word generation
Utopia Brain Teaser by Popular Playthings	Planning, inhibition, fluid reasoning, 3D visualization	P’tit Bac by Playbac	Mental imaging, word generation, verbal elaboration
Azada (MacOs) by BigFish	Fluid reasoning	WordsWorth (MacOs) by 99 games	Word generation (reading and writing)
Pr. Layton (Nintendo3DS) by Nintendo	Fluid reasoning to solve enigmas	Adi Français (Nintendo3DS) by Ninetendo	Grammar and syntax concepts, verbal elaboration

Table 4. Distribution of diagnoses per participant group, percentage (number of participants)

Diagnosis	GAME-fluid	GAME-crystallized	GAME-control	χ^2
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder	50.00% (6)	66.67% (8)	50.00% (5)	χ^2 (2, N = 34) = 3.00, p = 0.22
Dyslexia	0.00% (0)	41.67% (5)	50.00% (5)	χ^2 (2, N = 34) = 6.00, p = 0.20
Specific language impairment	16.67% (2)	8.33% (1)	20.00% (2)	χ^2 (2, N = 34) = 6.00, p = 0.20
Non verbal learning disorder	8.33% (1)	8.33% (1)	10.00% (1)	χ^2 (2, N = 34) = 3.00, p = 0.22
Tourette’s syndrome	8.33% (1)	0.00% (0)	10.00% (1)	χ^2 (2, N = 34) = 6.00, p = 0.20
Dyspraxia	16.67% (2)	8.33% (1)	30.00% (3)	χ^2 (2, N = 34) = 6.00, p = 0.20
Anxiety	0.00% (0)	0.00% (0)	20.00% (2)	χ^2 (2, N = 34) = 3.00, p = 0.22
Depression	8.33% (1)	0.00% (0)	10.00% (1)	χ^2 (2, N = 34) = 6.00, p = 0.20

Table 5. Comparison of main variables between groups at pre-test

	GAME-fluid		GAME-crystallized		Control group		ANOVA	p-value
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
Age	14.29	0.9	13.94	1.18	13.1	0.82	F(2,33) = 4.09	0.03
SES Blishen parents	41.97	13.65	52.02	14.97	45.85	10.86	F(2,27) = 1.14	0.26
Verbal IQ	75.83	7	79.25	9.21	73.8	5.45	F(2,33) = 3.50	0.27
Performance IQ	80.17	14.46	78.75	15.25	82.7	12.52	F(2,33) = 0.12	00.81
TONI-4	94.18	7.29	95	15.01	98.6	6.57	F(2,32) = 0.51	0.61
PPVT	95.33	13.17	98.75	13.25	97.4	7.85	F(2,33) = 0.25	0.78
Verbal fluency letter	18.67	6.53	19.08	5.58	19.44	5.57	F(2,33) = 0.05	0.96
Verbal fluency category	26.75	6.89	26	7.92	25.56	4.69	F(2,33) = 0.08	0.92
Verbal fluency flexibility	8.67	2.87	8.17	1.47	9.44	2.6	F(2,33) = 0.75	0.48
Verbal fluency switching words	7.83	2.89	6.5	1.68	8.56	2.24	F(2,33) = 2.15	0.14
Verbal fluency switching accuracy	7.83	2.89	6.5	1.68	8.56	2.24	F(2,33) = 2.15	0.14

Note: Significant results are bolded.

Table 6. Comparison of performance difference scores (post-test minus pre-test) for the main outcome variables

	ANOVA	Main ANOVAS		Dunnet’s post-hocs
		p-value	Effect size	Control group		GAME-crystallized		p-value	GAME-fluid		p-value
				Mean	SD	Mean	SD		Mean	SD
VIQ	F(2,33) = 9.77	<0.01	0.39	8.8	8.35	17.58	3.48	<0.01	8.33	6.02	0.77
PIQ	F(2,33) = .21	0.81		11.5	9.7	11.67	6.85	–	9.92	4.76	–
TONI-4	F(2,32) = 6.34	<0.01	0.3	−5.5	8.37	3.58	5	0.01	2.82	5.96	<0.01

Note: Significant results are bolded.

Figure 1 Average difference scores between GAME-f, GAME-c and control group.

Note: Test means = 100, S.D. = 15. *p < 0.01.

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