Development and Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Golf Participation Questionnaire for Older Adults (GPQOA)

Figures & data

Table 1. Summary of participant demographics for Pilot and CFA studies

	Pilot study					8-factor CFA					9-factor CFA
Characteristic	All	Men	Women	Metro	Country	All	Men*	Women	Metro**	Country	All	Men*	Women	Metro**	Country
	N = 32	n = 15	n = 17	n = 23	n = 9	N = 402	n = 309	n = 89	n = 377	n = 19	N = 419	n = 329	n = 83	n = 265	n = 150
Age (years)	64.9	65.3	64.6	66.2	61.6	64.8	65.1	63.7	64.9	64.4	63.9	64.0	63.3	63.8	64.1
	(5.5)	(5.5)	(5.7)	(4.7)	(6.4)	(5.2)	(5.2)	(5.1)	(5.2)	(5.8)	(5.6)	(5.6)	(5.7)	(5.6)	(5.7)
Years playing golf	26.7	36.8	17.8	28.1	23.0	28.7	31.7	18.5	28.9	24.6	31.5	34.7	18.9	31.9	30.5
	(17.3)	(13.7)	(15.3)	(18.9)	(12.2)	(15.3)	(14.9)	(12.0)	(15.2)	(16.3)	(15.9)	(14.9)	(13.6)	(15.7)	(16.1)
Handicap	19.9	15.5	23.9	20.1	19.4	19.0	17.7	23.5	18.9	17.5	16.0	14.8	20.9	16.4	15.4
	(8.3)	(3.2)	(9.4)	(9.4)	(4.7)	(7.9)	(6.8)	(9.7)	(7.9)	(7.1)	(8.3)	(7.4)	(9.1)	(8.5)	(7.8)
Rounds of golf played per week (average)	2.0	1.7	2.3	2.2	1.7	1.9	1.8	1.9	1.9	1.8	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9	2.1
	(0.8)	(0.8)	(0.8)	(0.8)	(0.7)	(0.7)	(0.7)	(0.7)	(0.7)	(1.0)	(0.8)	(0.9)	(0.7)	(0.7)	(1.0)

Note: Data are presented as mean (standard deviation).

8-Factor CFA—* Four participants did not report gender. ** Six participants did not report location.

9-Factor CFA—* Seven participants did not report gender. ** Four participants did not report location.

Table 2. Factor loadings and error variances for both 8-factor and 9-factor models

Factor	Item number and statement	8-factor model			9-factor model
		N = 402			N = 419
		Factor loading	Error variance	Mean score (SD)	Factor loading	Error variance	Mean score (SD)
1. Exercise and activity for older age	1. I am no longer able to play other sports that I had previously enjoyed	0.39	0.85	3.30 (0.81)	0.35	0.88	3.40 (0.83)
	2. I can play despite getting older	0.52	0.73		0.50	0.75
	3. It gives me a reason to get out of the house	0.76	0.42		0.76	0.42
	4. It provides me with some routine	0.78	0.39		0.81	0.35
	5. It provides a way of being physical active without it seeming like I am exercising	0.61	0.62		0.63	0.60
2. Competition with self and others	6. I enjoy engaging in competition	0.69	0.53	3.98	0.66	0.57	4.11
	7. There is opportunity for me to improve my ability despite ageing	0.63	0.60	(0.57)	0.60	0.64	(0.53)
	8. I enjoy the challenge	0.78	0.39		0.80	0.35
	9. It gives me a thrill when I play well	0.68	0.54		0.65	0.58
	10. I like trying to win	0.66	0.56		0.54	0.71
	11. I enjoy the recognition from others when I play well	0.49	0.76		0.34	0.88
3. Time for self	12. I enjoy spending time by myself on the course	0.48	0.77	2.9	0.53	0.72	3.05
	13. I use the time as a release from other stressors in my life	0.64	0.59	(0.74)	0.70	0.50	(0.83)
	14. It gives me time to think	0.83	0.32		0.81	0.35
4. Good fun	16. It is an extremely enjoyable activity	0.76	0.42	4.38	0.52	0.73	3.43
	17. It is interesting as each round is always different and ever changing	0.76	0.42	(0.54)	0.67	0.55	(0.66)
5. Physical health	18. It helps me manage an existing injury or illness	0.56	0.69	2.97	0.45	0.80	3.32
	19. It helps to prevent physical injury or illness	0.80	0.36	(0.82)	0.80	0.36	(0.79)
	20. It reduces the effects of ageing	0.75	0.44		0.74	0.45
6. Cognitive health	21. It improves my ability to concentrate	0.72	0.48	3.09	0.72	0.49	3.06
	22. It improves my memory	0.84	0.30	(0.77)	0.85	0.29	(0.83)
	23. It improves my ability to solve problems	0.86	0.26		0.86	0.27
7. Mental health	24. It improves my mental health while I am playing	0.89	0.20	3.27	0.88	0.23	3.05
	25. It improves my mental health after I have finished playing	0.84	0.30	(0.81)	0.87	0.24	(0.88)
8. Part of community	15. I enjoy the physical environment on the course	0.23	0.95	3.81	-	-	3.61
	26. It allows me to meet new friends	0.55	0.70	(0.46)	0.83	0.31	(0.55)
	27. It strengthens existing relationships/friendships	0.57	0.67		0.77	0.41
	28. I enjoy the company of my playing partners	0.46	0.79		-	-
	29(a). I can offer personal support to others in times of needs or hard times	0.72	0.48		0.36	0.87
	30(a). I can ask other golfers for support when I need it	0.64	0.59		0.31	0.91
9. Environment	29(b). I play golf because I enjoy the pleasant, natural surroundings	-	-	-	0.92	0.16	4.36
	30(b). I play golf because I enjoy the natural beauty and features of the course	-	-		0.78	0.38	(0.54)

Table 3. Fit indices for 8-factor and 9-factor models

Fit index	8-factor 30-item instrument	9-factor 30-item instrument
	Value	Value
SRMR	0.109	0.075
TLI	0.806	0.929
CFI	0.831	0.940
RMSEA	0.122, 90% CI = 0.117–0.126	0.064, 90% CI = 0.059–0.068
	p < 0.001	p < 0.001

Note: Absolute fit of the eight-factor model χ² (377, N = 402) = 1,012.80, p < 0.0001. Absolute fit of the nine-factor model χ² (369, N = 419) = 993.91, p < 0.0001.

Table 4. Summary of participant demographics for Measurement Invariance (N = 1,066)

Characteristic	All	Men	Women	Metro*	Country*
	N= 1,066	n = 533	n = 533	n = 622	n = 425
Age	64.7	65.3	64.2	64.9	64.9
	(5.2)	(5.3)	(5.1)	(5.3)	(5.1)
Years playing	27.2	35.1	19.3	26.7	28.0
	(15.6)	(14.2)	(12.7)	(15.4)	(15.8)
Handicap	18.2	15.2	21.2	18.2	18.1
	(7.7)	(6.2)	(7.9)	(7.9)	(7.5)
Rounds of golf played per week (average)	2.1	2.2	2.1	2.1	2.2
	(0.8)	(0.8)	(0.7)	(0.8)	(0.8)

Note: Data are presented as mean (standard deviation).

Table 5. Results of measurement invariance testing

Model	Δ x^2	Δ df	RMSEA	CFI	TLI	SRMR
Configural (base model) x^2 (783, N = 1,066), 2,330.303*			0.061	0.949	0.943	0.069
Weak	48.25	21*	0.061	0.948	0.944	0.080
Strong	201.39	51*	0.062	0.944	0.942	0.079
Strict	262.37	81*	0.061	0.943	0.943	0.082

* p < 0.001, x² Chi Square, df degrees of freedom, RMSEA root mean square error of approximation, CFI comparative fit index, TLI Tucker–Lewis index, SRMR standardised root mean square residual.