Ethnic differences and predictors of racial and religious discriminations among Malaysian Malays and Chinese

Figures & data

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables

	Chinese (N = 319)		Malay (N = 881)		Combined (N = 1200)
Variable	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
Age	40.0	13.877	40.04	13.866	40.03	13.863
Education (1 to 9)	4.68	2.019	5.07	1.834	4.97	1.892
Religion is important (1 to 4)	3.48	0.717	3.94	0.25	3.82	0.474
Tradition is important (1 to 6)	4.71	1.134	4.85	1.162	4.81	1.156
	Count (%)
Male	160 (50.2%)		456 (51.8%)		616 (51.3%)
Unemployed	58 (18.2%)		233 (26.4%)		291 (24.3%)
Married	202 (63.3%)		628 (71.3%)		830 (69.2%)
Racial discrimination	55 (17.2%)		311 (35.3%)		366 (30.5%)
Religious discrimination	59 (18.5%)		301 (34.2%)		360 (30%)

Table 2. Racial Discrimination—Chinese—Model 1

	Model 1.1	Model 1.2	Model 1.3	Model 1.4
Predictor	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]
Male	0.52* [0.28–0.95]	0.58 [0.31–1.07]	0.58 [0.31–1.09]	0.50 [0.22–1.12]
Age	0.98 [0.96–1.00]	0.96** [0.927–0.984]	0.95** [0.92–0.98]	0.96 [0.93–1.00]
Less educated		1.18 [0.99–1.41]	1.18 [0.99–1.41]	1.08 [0.87–1.35]
Unemployed		2.01 [0.98–4.15]	1.97 [0.94–4.10]	1.46 [0.57–3.75]
Married		2.10 [0.98–4.51]	2.20* [1.01–4.79]	1.55 [0.59–4.07]
RI			1.64* [1.01–2.67]	1.42 [0.77–2.63]
TI			0.91 [0.69–1.19]	1.12 [0.78–1.60]
ReligiousD				33.49*** [14.86–75.45]
Nagelkerke R^2	.040	.095	.117	.501
ΔR^2		.055*	.022	.384***
Model p	.338	.118	.336	.748

RI = Religion is important. TI = Tradition is important. ReligiousD = Religious discrimination.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Table 3. Racial Discrimination—Malays—Model 2

	Model 2.1	Model 2.2	Model 2.3	Model 2.4
Predictor	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]
Male	1.19 [0.90–1.1.56]	1.25 [0.94–1.66]	1.23 [0.92–1.64]	1.50 [0.96–2.34]
Age	0.99 [0.98–1.00]	0.98** [0.97–1.00]	0.98* [0.97–1.00]	0.99 [0.97–1.01]
Less educated		1.10* [1.01–1.20]	1.09* [1.01–1.19]	1.00 [0.87–1.13]
Unemployed		1.21 [0.87–1.67]	1.22 [0.87–0 = 1.69]	1.27 [0.77–2.10]
Married		1.20 [0.83–1.73]	1.20 [0.83–1.74]	2.13* [1.18–3.83]
RI			1.69 [0.88–3.26]	1.13 [0.44–2.93]
TI			0.85** [0.75–0.95]	0.96 [0.80–1.15]
ReligiousD				65.97*** [41.79–104.13]
Nagelkerke R^2	.006	.017	.032	.641
ΔR^2		.011	.015**	.609***
Model p	.376	.414	.190	.250

RI = Religion is important. TI = Tradition is important. ReligiousD = Religious discrimination.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Table 4. Racial Discrimination—Combined—Model 3

	Model 3.1	Model 3.2	Model 3.3	Model 3.4
Predictor	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]
Malay	2.63*** [1.90–3.63]	2.43*** [1.76–3.37]	2.02*** [1.41–2.87]	1.80* [1.09–2.99]
Male	1.02 [0.79–1.31]	1.09 [0.84–1.41]	1.08 [0.83–1.39]	1.15 [0.79–1.67]
Age	0.99* [0.98–1.00]	0.98*** [0.97–0.99]	0.98*** [0.97–0.99]	0.99 [0.97–1.00]
Less educated		1.11** [1.03–1.20]	1.11** [1.03–1.20]	1.01 [0.90–1.13]
Unemployed		1.31 [0.97–1.76]	1.31 [0.97–1.77]	1.21 [0.78–1.87]
Married		1.34 [0.97–1.86]	1.35 [0.97–1.88]	1.82* [1.12–2.96]
RI			1.66** [1.14–2.43]	1.39 [0.82–2.36]
TI			0.86** [0.77–0.96]	0.99 [0.85–1.17]
ReligiousD				53.56*** [36.48–78.63]
Nagelkerke R^2	.050	.066	.081	.620
ΔR^2		.016**	.015**	.539***
Model p	.119	.067	.109	.910

RI = Religion is important. TI = Tradition is important. ReligiousD = Religious discrimination.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Table 5. Religious Discrimination—Chinese—Model 4

	Model 4.1	Model 4.2	Model 4.3	Model 4.4
Predictor	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]
Male	0.75 [0.42–1.33]	0.86 [0.47–1.55]	0.84 [0.46–1.52]	1.18 [0.54–2.59]
Age	0.99 [0.97–1.01]	0.96** [0.94–0.99]	0.96** [0.93–0.99]	0.98 [0.94–1.01]
Less educated		1.22* [1.02–1.44]	1.21* [1.02–1.44]	1.17 [0.94–1.47]
Unemployed		2.27* [1.13–4.55]	2.31* [1.14–4.71]	1.94 [0.75–5.01]
Married		2.17* [1.03–4.57]	2.24* [1.05–4.79]	1.81 [0.68–4.78]
RI			1.52 [0.96–2.40]	1.24 [0.69–2.21]
TI			0.79 [0.61–1.02]	0.74 [0.53–1.02]
RacialD				32.87*** [14.67–73.65]
Nagelkerke R^2	.009	.082	.108	.485
ΔR^2		.073**	.026	.377***
Model p	.051	.519	.295	.396

RI = Religion is important. TI = Tradition is important. RacialD = Racial discrimination.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Table 6. Religious Discrimination—Malay—Model 5

	Model 5.1	Model 5.2	Model 5.3	Model 5.4
Predictor	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]
Male	1.04 [0.79–1.38]	1.08 [0.81–1.44]	1.05 [0.79–1.41]	0.76 [0.49–1.20]
Age	0.99* [0.98–1.00]	0.98** [0.97–0.99]	0.98* [0.97–1.00]	0.99 [0.97–1.01]
Less educated		1.14** [1.04–1.24]	1.13** [1.04–1.24]	1.14 [1.00–1.31]
Unemployed		1.14 [0.82–1.58]	1.14 [0.82–1.59]	0.95 [0.57–1.59]
Married		0.85 [0.59–1.22]	0.85 [0.59–1.23]	0.48* [0.27–0.85]
RI			1.87 [0.95–3.67]	1.88 [0.65–5.48]
TI			0.82** [0.72–0.92]	0.84 [0.70–1.01]
RacialD				66.13*** [41.87–104.46]
Nagelkerke R^2	.010	.026	.047	.653
ΔR^2		.016**	.021**	.606***
Model p	.245	.668	.582	.876

RI = Religion is important. TI = Tradition is important. RacialD = Racial discrimination.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Table 7. Religious Discrimination—Combined—Model 6

	Model 6.1	Model 6.2	Model 6.3	Model 6.4
Predictor	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]	OR [CI = 95%]
Malay	2.30*** [1.68–3.15]	2.15*** [1.56–2.96]	1.81*** [1.28–2.57]	1.20 [0.73–1.98]
Male	0.98 [0.76–1.25]	1.03 [0.80–1.34]	1.01 [0.78–1.32]	0.90 [0.61–1.32]
Age	0.99** [0.98–1.00]	0.98*** [0.97–0.99]	0.98*** [0.97–0.99]	0.99 [0.97–1.01]
Less educated		1.15*** [1.07–1.24]	1.15*** [1.06–1.24]	1.15* [1.02–1.28]
Unemployed		1.29 [0.96–1.74]	1.30 [0.96–1.76]	1.14 [0.73–1.78]
Married		1.04 [0.75–1.43]	1.05 [0.76–1.46]	0.69 [0.43–1.12]
RI			1.61* [1.11–2.32]	1.31 [0.79–2.17]
TI			0.81*** [0.73–0.91]	0.81** [0.69–0.95]
RacialD				53.56*** [36.48–78.65]
Nagelkerke R^2	.042	.061	.083	.622
ΔR^2		.019***	.022***	.539***
Model p	.141	.485	.956	.762

RI = Religion is important. TI = Tradition is important. RacialD = Racial discrimination.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.