Stress, psychological disease, psychological well-being and personality in Italian firefighters compared to other working categories

Figures & data

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the firefighters, urban policemen and employees. Values in parentheses are standard deviations. n.r. means “not reported” datum

	Firefighters	Urban Policemen	Employees
gender
males	92.9%	57.1%	46.4%
females	7.1%	42.9%	53.6%
age	44.78 (7.71)	46.14 (8.96)	38.71 (8.75)
years of service	18.96 (7.85)	19.21 (10.12)	8.52 (6.28)
education level
secondary school	14.3%	0.0%	0.0%
high school	67.9%	60.7%	39.3%
university degree	14.3%	39.3%	60.7%
n.r.	3.6%	0.0%	0.0%
marital status
single	7.1%	28.60%	50.0%
married	75.0%	64.30%	42.9%
divorced	14.3%	7.10%	7.1%
widowed	0.0%	0.0%	0.0%
n.r.	3.6%	0.0%	0.0%

Table 2. Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis) for each psychological questionnaire and relative subscales. s.d. is the standard deviation

	Firefighters				Urban Policemen				Employees
measures	mean	s.d.	skewness	kurtosis	mean	s.d.	skewness	kurtosis	mean	s.d.	skewness	kurtosis
measures of PWB
LOT-R	21.14	3.26	0.21	−0.87	20.68	3.46	0.51	−0.32	20.29	3.90	−0.50	−0.67
LS	24.57	6.21	−0.55	−0.53	23.21	5.73	−0.73	−0.40	24.46	5.65	−0.34	−0.80
RSE	19.90	3.71	−0.19	−0.40	20.21	3.68	0.43	0.36	19.93	4.67	0.32	−0.47
PANAS(+)	36.96	4.83	0.19	0.39	36.01	5.70	−1.11	2.26	37.64	5.56	−0.46	−0.53
PANAS(-)	18.40	5.46	0.50	0.15	17.79	6.35	0.42	−1.21	22.35	6.54	0.42	−0.55
measures of mental health
BSI-SO	0.25	0.51	2.69	7.14	0.49	0.58	1.62	2.30	0.54	0.57	1.01	−0.09
BSI-O-C	0.45	0.54	0.97	−0.49	0.65	0.44	0.53	0.14	0.83	0.65	0.76	−0.38
BSI-I-S	0.43	0.64	1.80	2.42	0.64	0.57	0.83	−0.46	0.69	0.74	1.00	−0.36
BSI-DE	0.32	0.44	1.44	1.15	0.55	0.60	1.38	1.75	0.70	0.63	0.79	−0.56
BSI-ANX	0.32	0.48	1.99	3.56	0.46	0.54	1.77	2.94	0.84	0.54	0.36	−0.83
BIS-HOS	0.44	0.69	1.65	1.38	0.47	0.44	0.96	−0.10	0.66	0.63	0.83	−0.49
BSI-PHO	0.17	0.38	3.04	9.90	0.23	0.36	2.18	5.05	0.19	0.39	2.18	4.28
BSI-PAR	0.56	0.62	1.21	0.46	0.87	0.68	0.52	−1.03	0.77	0.70	0.94	−0.40
BSI-PSY	0.25	0.41	1.77	2.41	0.42	0.55	1.87	3.59	0.47	0.52	0.89	−0.41
BSI-GSI	0.36	0.46	1.78	2.47	0.52	0.46	1.59	2.67	0.63	0.49	0.81	−0.76
BAI	5.04	6.71	2.73	8.27	11.61	11.27	2.16	5.32	14.44	10.93	0.73	−0.76
measures of stress
MSP-irr	7.64	2.63	1.37	0.87	7.79	2.33	1.30	0.42	8.37	2.57	0.44	−1.07
MSP-psych	4.86	2.01	2.32	4.47	5.29	1.74	1.49	1.29	6.30	2.30	0.69	−1.00
MSP-fat	5.11	1.79	1.41	0.60	5.82	1.87	0.58	−0.93	6.64	2.41	0.48	−0.95
MSP-dep	5.04	1.86	2.23	4.99	5.89	2.62	1.43	1.32	6.87	2.13	0.49	−0.78
MSP-sens	3.93	1.15	1.25	0.93	4.86	1.88	1.26	0.95	5.39	2.10	0.17	−1.44
MSP-hyper	5.00	1.56	0.73	−0.24	5.21	1.26	0.26	−0.66	6.54	1.75	0.02	−0.37
MSP total	71.64	21.27	1.37	0.81	77.43	21.63	1.51	1.58	91.43	22.64	0.19	−1.43
measures of personality
BFQ-SF-E	38.00	3.06	−0.33	−1.04	39.54	3.96	−0.57	0.02	37.05	6.43	−0.33	−0.02
BFQ-SF-A	41.97	5.26	−0.10	−0.41	40.82	4.21	0.45	−0.41	42.33	5.02	1.06	0.80
BFQ-SF-C	42.11	5.30	0.69	−0.31	44.96	5.45	−1.21	2.05	42.54	5.23	0.26	−0.79
BFQ-SF-ES	43.23	7.20	−0.09	−0.80	39.82	7.46	0.06	−0.99	37.09	7.16	−0.04	−1.25
BFQ-SF-O	40.10	7.36	−0.38	−0.30	40.54	5.87	0.26	−0.64	41.68	8.87	0.08	−0.79
measure of social desirability
MC-SD-SF	5.98	1.91	0.08	−1.35	5.93	2.14	−0.52	0.15	5.29	1.88	−0.08	−0.15

Notes: PWB: Psychological Well-Being; BSI: Brief Symptoms Inventory with Somatization (BSI-SO), Obsession-Compulsion (BSI-O-C), Interpersonal Sensitivity (BSI-I-S), Depression (BSI-DE), Anxiety (BSI-ANX), Hostility (BIS-HOS), Phobic Anxiety (BSI-PHO), Paranoid Ideation (BSI-PAR), Psychoticism (BSI-PSY) subscale. BSI-GSI: Global Severity Index.

BAI: Beck Anxiety Inventory questionnaire.

MSP: Measure of Psychological Stress scale with loss of control and irritability (MSP-irr), psychophysiological sensation (MSP-psych), fatigue and confusion (MSP-fat), depressive anxiety (MSP-dep), psychosomatic sensations (MSP-sens) and pains and hyperactivity (MSP-hyper) subscale. MSP total: global score at MSP scale.

BFQ-SF: Big Five Questionnaire—Short Form with Extraversion (BFQ-SF-E), Agreeableness (BFQ-SF-A), Conscientiousness (BFQ-SF-C), Emotional Stability (BFQ-SF-ES) and Openness (BFQ-SF-O).

MC-SD-SF: Marlowe-Crowne scale for Social Desirability-Short Form.

Table 3. Correlations between Marlowe-Crowne’s scores of social desirability and scores obtained in other psychological tests. Pearson’s correlation coefficients (r) and relative probabilities (p(r)) are reported. Significant probabilities (p < .05), corrected for multiple testing, are in bold types

	Firefighters		Urban policemen		Employees
	r	p(r)	r	p(r)	r	p(r)
measures of PWB
LOT-R	0.40	0.030	0.15	0.330	0.14	0.257
LS	0.27	0.095	0.41	0.224	0.30	0.088
RSE	0.24	0.113	−0.31	0.261	−0.20	0.187
PANAS(+)	0.08	0.341	0.30	0.261	0.32	0.084
PANAS(-)	−0.56	0.009	−0.28	0.261	−0.28	0.108
measures of mental health
BSI-SO	−0.37	0.038	−0.19	0.285	−0.26	0.119
BSI-O-C	−0.54	0.014	−0.27	0.261	−0.49	0.028
BSI-I-S	−0.31	0.068	−0.23	0.115	−0.43	0.044
BSI-DE	−0.37	0.038	−0.35	0.261	−0.43	0.044
BSI-ANX	−0.48	0.017	−0.14	0.330	−0.38	0.056
BIS-HOS	−0.44	0.019	−0.28	0.261	−0.42	0.046
BSI-PHO	−0.31	0.068	0.06	0.405	−0.56	0.028
BSI-PAR	−0.45	0.017	−0.21	0.274	−0.39	0.056
BSI-PSY	−0.33	0.057	−0.12	0.330	−0.36	0.060
BSI-GSI	−0.47	0.017	−0.24	0.261	−0.50	0.028
BAI	−0.27	0.095	−0.23	0.261	−0.04	0.415
measures of stress
MSP-irr	−0.50	0.017	−0.05	0.405	−0.51	0.028
MSP-psych	−0.46	0.017	0.13	0.330	−0.31	0.087
MSP-fat	−0.48	0.017	−0.20	0.285	−0.36	0.060
MSP-dep	−0.37	0.038	−0.11	0.330	−0.23	0.155
MSP-sens	−0.44	0.019	−0.11	0.330	−0.11	0.292
MSP-hyper	−0.45	0.017	−0.17	0.313	−0.17	0.214
MSP total	−0.61	0.000	−0.12	0.330	−0.39	0.056
measures of personality
BFQ-SF-E	0.40	0.030	0.24	0.261	0.32	0.084
BFQ-SF-A	0.48	0.017	0.05	0.405	0.45	0.044
BFQ-SF-C	0.26	0.097	0.10	0.334	0.37	0.060
BFQ-SF-ES	0.56	0.009	0.41	0.224	0.34	0.071
BFQ-SF-O	0.46	0.017	0.24	0.261	0.21	0.169

Notes: PWB: Psychological Well-being; LOT-R: Revised Life Orientation Test; LS: Life Satisfaction scale; RSE: Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem scale; PANAS(+): Positive Affect Scale; PANAS(-): Negative Affect Scale.

BSI: Brief Symptoms Inventory with Somatization (BSI-SO), Obsession-Compulsion (BSI-O-C), Interpersonal Sensitivity (BSI-I-S), Depression (BSI-DE), Anxiety (BSI-ANX), Hostility (BIS-HOS), Phobic Anxiety (BSI-PHO), Paranoid Ideation (BSI-PAR), Psychoticism (BSI-PSY) subscale. BSI-GSI: Global Severity Index.

BAI: Beck Anxiety Inventory questionnaire.

MSP: Measure of Psychological Stress scale with loss of control and irritability (MSP-irr), psychophysiological sensation (MSP-psych), fatigue and confusion (MSP-fat), depressive anxiety (MSP-dep), psychosomatic sensations (MSP-sens) and pains and hyperactivity (MSP-hyper) subscale. MSP total: global score at MSP scale.

BFQ-SF: Big Five Questionnaire—Short Form with Extraversion (BFQ-SF-E), Agreeableness (BFQ-SF-A), Conscientiousness (BFQ-SF-C), Emotional Stability (BFQ-SF-ES) and Openness (BFQ-SF-O).

Table 4. ANOVA results (F values and their relative probabilities p(F)) for each psychological scale and relative subscales. Significant probabilities (p < .05) are in bold types. Effect sizes (η²) are also reported. Post-hoc comparisons (Tukey-HSD tests) are reported only for significant ANOVAs. F-UP: difference between firefighters and urban policemen; UP-E: difference between urban policemen and employees; F–E: difference between firefighters and employees

	ANOVAs			Tukey-HSD post-hoc tests
				F—UP		UP—E		F—E
measures	F (2, 81)	p(F)	effect size (η^2)	diff.	p	diff.	p	diff.	p
measures of mental health
BSI-SO	2.214	0.116	0.052
BSI-O-C	3.375	0.039	0.077	0.196	0.380	0.186	0.420	0.382	0.030
BSI-I-S	1.269	0.287	0.030
BSI-DE	3.181	0.047	0.073	0.229	0.285	0.146	0.593	0.375	0.038
BSI-ANX	7.363	0.001	0.154	0.136	0.593	0.379	0.021	0.514	0.001
BIS-HOS	1.177	0.314	0.028
BSI-PHO	0.165	0.848	0.004
BSI-PAR	1.543	0.220	0.037
BSI-PSY	1.516	0.226	0.036
BSI-GSI	2.406	0.097	0.056
BAI	6.700	0.002	0.142	6.571	0.039	2.829	0.533	9.400	0.002
measures of stress
MSP-irr	0.654	0.523	0.016
MSP-psych	3.702	0.029	0.084	0.429	0.711	1.011	0.157	1.439	0.026
MSP-fat	3.972	0.023	0.089	0.714	0.394	0.821	0.293	1.536	0.017
MSP-dep	4.764	0.011	0.105	0.857	0.324	0.975	0.234	1.832	0.008
MSP-sens	4.980	0.009	0.110	0.929	0.124	0.536	0.492	1.464	0.007
MSP-hyper	8.185	0.001	0.168	0.214	0.861	1.321	0.005	1.536	0.001
MSP total	6.065	0.004	0.130	5.786	0.585	13.996	0.049	19.782	0.003
measures of personality
BFQ-SF-E	1.991	0.143	0.047
BFQ-SF-A	0.734	0.483	0.018
BFQ-SF-C	2.338	0.103	0.055
BFQ-SF-ES	5.010	0.009	0.110	3.411	0.192	2.732	0.343	6.143	0.006
BFQ-SF-O	0.333	0.718	0.008

Notes: BSI: Brief Symptoms Inventory with Somatization (BSI-SO), Obsession-Compulsion (BSI-O-C), Interpersonal Sensitivity (BSI-I-S), Depression (BSI-DE), Anxiety (BSI-ANX), Hostility (BIS-HOS), Phobic Anxiety (BSI-PHO), Paranoid Ideation (BSI-PAR), Psychoticism (BSI-PSY) subscale. BSI-GSI: Global Severity Index.

BAI: Beck Anxiety Inventory questionnaire.

MSP: Measure of Psychological Stress scale with loss of control and irritability (MSP-irr), psychophysiological sensation (MSP-psych), fatigue and confusion (MSP-fat), depressive anxiety (MSP-dep), psychosomatic sensations (MSP-sens) and pains and hyperactivity (MSP-hyper) subscale. MSP total: global score at MSP scale.

BFQ-SF: Big Five Questionnaire—Short Form with Extraversion (BFQ-SF-E), Agreeableness (BFQ-SF-A), Conscientiousness (BFQ-SF-C), Emotional Stability (BFQ-SF-ES) and Openness (BFQ-SF-O).

Table 5. Multiple regression analyses for the scales which obtained significant ANOVAs. Standardized β coefficients, t values, probabilities (p(t)) and partial η² are reported. The general validity of the regression model is indicated by R², adjusted R², F value and its probability (p(F)). Significant probability values (p < .05) are in bold type

		coefficients table				model general validity
		stand. βs	t value	p(t)	Partial η^2	R^2	adjust. R^2	F(3,80)	p(F)
BAI	work	0.297	2.579	0.012	0.077	0.164	0.133	5.233	0.002
	gender	0.180	1.508	0.136	0.028
	work x gender	0.014	0.124	0.902	0.000
BSI-O-C	work	0.287	2.378	0.020	0.066	0.080	0.046	2.332	0.080
	gender	−0.004	−0.035	0.972	0.000
	work x gender	0.031	0.265	0.791	0.001
BSI-DE	work	0.273	2.269	0.026	0.060	0.082	0.048	2.386	0.075
	gender	0.011	0.091	0.928	0.000
	work x gender	0.097	0.836	0.405	0.009
BSI-ANX	work	0.393	3.383	0.001	0.125	0.148	0.117	4.648	0.005
	gender	−0.017	−0.138	0.891	0.000
	work x gender	0.076	0.685	0.495	0.006
BFQ-SF-ES	work	−0.323	−2.734	0.008	0.085	0.116	0.083	3.489	0.019
	gender	−0.034	−0.278	0.782	0.001
	work x gender	−0.062	−0.545	0.587	0.004
MSP-psych	work	0.293	2.448	0.017	0.070	0.095	0.061	2.807	0.045
	gender	0.004	0.029	0.977	0.000
	work x gender	0.125	1.087	0.280	0.015
MSP-fat	work	0.335	2.795	0.006	0.089	0.094	0.060	2.777	0.047
	gender	−0.076	−0.614	0.541	0.005
	work x gender	0.056	0.485	0.629	0.003
MSP-dep	work	0.296	2.525	0.014	0.074	0.129	0.096	3.940	0.011
	gender	0.095	0.775	0.441	0.007
	work x gender	0.099	0.879	0.382	0.010
MSP-sens	work	0.344	2.895	0.005	0.095	0.109	0.076	3.268	0.025
	gender	−0.029	−0.237	0.813	0.001
	work x gender	0.050	0.441	0.660	0.002
MSP-hyper	work	0.387	3.341	0.001	0.122	0.152	0.120	4.769	0.004
	gender	0.002	0.013	0.990	0.000
	work x gender	0.092	0.825	0.412	0.008
MSP total	work	0.373	3.174	0.002	0.112	0.129	0.097	3.959	0.011
	gender	−0.033	−0.273	0.786	0.001
	work x gender	0.084	0.749	0.456	0.007

Notes: BSI-SO: Brief Symptoms Inventory -Somatization subscale; BSI-DE: Brief Symptoms Inventory- Depression subscale; BSI-ANX: Brief Symptoms Inventory-Anxiety subscale; BAI: Beck Anxiety Inventory questionnaire; BFQ-SF-ES: Big Five Questionnaire—Short Form- Emotional Stability subscale; MSP-psych: Measure of Psychological Stress- psychophysiological sensation subscale; MSP-fat: Measure of Psychological Stress- fatigue and confusion subscale; MSP-dep: Measure of Psychological Stress- depressive anxiety subscale; MSP-sens: Measure of Psychological Stress- psychosomatic sensations subscale; MSP-hyper: Measure of Psychological Stress- pains and hyperactivity subscale; MSP total: global score at MSP scale.