Determinants of smallholder farmers’ participation and level of participation in small-scale irrigation practice in Gemechis district, West Hararghe Zone, Ethiopia

Figures & data

Table 1. Proportional sample size of households in each selected kebeles

Name of kebele	Strata		Total Household	Sample size		Total sample size
	Non-participants	Participants		Non-participants	Participants
Kase Badiya	364	98	462	28	8	36
Walenso Arbafano	394	345	739	30	27	57
Homacho Gulabuba	200	220	420	16	17	33
Homacho Dayyo	387	147	534	30	11	41
Total	1345	810	2155	104	63	167

Table 2. Description of the explanatory variables specified in the Double Hurdle Model

Explanatory Variable	Variable Type	Description of the Variable	Measurability	Expected Sign
Age	Continuous	Age of household head	Years	±
Sex	Dummy	Sex of HH head (0 = female, 1 = male).	Proxy/categorical	+
Education Level	Continuous	Formal education level of HH head	Years/number of grades attended	+
Household Size	Continuous	Measured in terms of adult equivalent of persons living together in one household.	Number	±
Annual Income	Continuous	Total annual income of the household from all activity		+
Land Size	Continuous	Total area of cultivable land and suitable land for irrigation owned by the household	Hectares	±
Livestock Holding	Continuous	total livestock owned by farmers and equivalent to Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU)	Number	+
Access to Oxen	Dummy	Households of holding Oxen (1 Having own Oxen, 0 otherwise)	Proxy/categorical	+
Farming Experience	Continuous	Farming experience of household head	Years	+
Off-farm Activity	Dummy	Off-farm activity (1 if a household head participated in off-farm income generating activities and 0, otherwise	Proxy/categorical	+
Market Distance	Continuous	Distance of a market place from the HHHs’ home	Km	-
Farm Distance	Continuous	Distance of plot of land for irrigation from water source.	Km	-
Market Information	Dummy	Information concerning the demand and price issue of the product (1 for having this access, 0 otherwise)	Proxy/categorical	+
Extension Access	dummy	number of agricultural extension contact in the cropping year/season (1 if the farmer has got at least one extension, 0 otherwise)	Proxy/categorical	+
Credit Access	Dummy	Credit accessibility (1 a farmer accessed a credit before growing season, 0 otherwise)	Proxy/categorical	+
Farmers’ perception	Dummy	Farmers’ perception on the importance of Irrigation (1 = if favourable response, 0 otherwise	Proxy/categorical	+

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of continuous variables across participant and non-participants of small-scale irrigation

Variables	Participant (N = 63)		Non-participant(N = 104)
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	t-test	p-value
Age of HHH	37.90	17.00827	57.82	15.46419	7.765	0.010***
Education Level of HHH	6.43	3.58633	4.25	3.63839	−3.771	0.010***
Household Size	7.79	2.80068	4.62	2.27825	−8.003	0.010***
Annual Income of HH	242,031.75	637,813.93	71,914.42	127,975.50	−2.639	0.009***
TLU	3.13	1.78246	2.02	2.05261	−3.548	0.010***
Farming Experience	11.22	7.50149	5.64	4.30831	1.928	0.056
Market Distance	5.24	3.17609	5.64	4.30831	0.649	0.517
Farm Distance	1.79	1.95060	5.76	2.75662	10.003	0.010***

Note: ***indicates level of significance at 1%, HHH = Household Head.

Table 4. Descriptive statistics of the discrete variables across participant (N = 104) and non-participants (N = 63)

Variable		Participant	Non-participant	Total
		Frequency	Frequency	Frequency	Ch^2-test	p-value
Sex of HH head	Male	56(39.72)	85(60.28)	141(84.43)	0.273	0.155
	Female	7(26.92)	19(73.08)	26(15.57)
Oxen Access	Yes	57(90.48)	8(7.69)	65(38.92)	0.001	0.010***
	No	6(9.52)	96(92.31)	102(61.08)
Off-farm Activity	Yes	2 (3.17)	26 (25.00)	28 (16.77)	0.002	0.010***
	No	61 (96.83)	78 (75.00)	139 (83.23)
Market Info. Access	Yes	24 (38.09)	33(31.73)	57 (34.13)	0.406	0.250
	No	39(61.91)	71(68.27)	110 (65.87)
Extension Access	Yes	56 (88.89)	22 (21.15)	78 (46.71)	0.001	0.010***
	No	7(11.11)	82 (78.85)	89 (53.29)

Note: Figures in parenthesis represents the percentage of respondents involved, ***indicates level of significance at 1% and HHH = Household Head.

Figure 1. Farmers’ perception on small-scale irrigation in Gemechis district

Figure 2. Accessibility of credit service in Gemechis district

Table 5. Maximum likelihood estimates of double hurdle models for participation and intensity (level) of participation of small-scale irrigation in Gemechis district

First Hurdle (Probit)-Participation Equation					Second Hurdle (Truncated Model)-Intensity Equation
Variables	Coef.	Std. Error	P-value	Marginal Effect	Coef.	Std. Error	P-value	Marginal Effect
Age of Household Head	−0.0247125	0.0246677	0.316	−0.0010981	−0.0059836	0.005946	0.312	−0.0059836
Sex of Household Head	2.222321	1.126311	0.048**	0.0987447	0.2532905	0.3115382	0.416	0.2532905
Education Level	0.0551284	0.0996942	0.580	0.0024495	0.0457236	0.0275029	0.096	0.0457236
Household Size	0.4586552	0.2250867	0.042**	0.0203795	0.0927761	0.0422315	0.028**	0.0927761
Annual Income	7.82e-06	3.12e-06	0.002***	3.48e-07	1.29e-07	1.37e-07	0.344	1.29e-07
TLU	0.5639741	0.3244202	0.082	0.0250592	0.0539569	0.0498658	0.279	0.0539569
Oxen Access	12.96026	469.9258	0.978	0.5758654	0.5906228	0.2041674	0.001***	0.5906228
Farming Experience	0.0668304	0.0606376	0.270	0.0029695	0.02700	0.0116479	0.020**	0.02700
Off-farm Activity	−0.0718683	1.175014	0.951	−0.0031933	−0.3461568	0.2916194	0.235	−0.3461568
Market Distance	−0.0425158	0.1618816	0.793	−0.0018891	−0.0020868	0.0199392	0.917	−0.0020868
Farm Distance	−0.4989052	0.2375799	0.036**	−0.0221679	−0.0005019	0.0458891	0.991	−0.0005019
Market Information Access	0.3262882	1.170274	0.780	0.014498	0.1494643	0.162667	0.358	0.1494643
Extension Access	4.183877	2.001908	0.037**	0.5673623	0.4039678	0.2528009	0.110	0.4039678
Credit Access	5.040523	2.19591	0.022**	0.2239664	0.5466131	0.2881075	0.052**	0.5466131
Farmers’ Perception	12.76889	469.9269	0.978	0.1859029	0.5495165	0.2877567	0.056	0.5495165
Constant	5.962937	469.9217	0.990		0.6372697	.05686423	0.262
sigma					0.6463532	0.0567413	0.000
Number of observation = 167		Pseudo R^2 = 0.8810			Number of observation = 91		Limit: lower = 0
LR chi^2(15) = 195.01		Log likelihood = −13.165951			Wald chi^2(15) = 21.04		upper = +inf
Prob > chi^2 = 0.0000					Prob > chi^2 = 0.1355		Log likelihood =  -83.780165

Table

	Probit, D	Truncated Regression	Tobit
Loglikelihood Ratio	−13.17	−83.78	−189.81
Wald χ^2/ LR chi^2	(15) = 195.01	(15) = 21.04	(15) = 65.67
Number of observation (N)	167	91	167
AIC	58.33	201.56	413.62
BIC	108.22	244.25	466.63
Hypothesis	H0: Tobit Specification
	H1 = Double Hurdle Specification
Critical Value	X^215,0.05 = 24.996
Decision: Reject Ho B/C x^2-Test Double Hurdle versus Tobit: Γ = 150.38

Table

Variable	VIF	Tolerance Level
Age of Household Head	1.63	0.612667
Education of Household Head	1.28	0.778892
Household Size	1.49	0.671017
Annual Income	1.07	0.937599
Total Livestock Holding	1.19	0.838296
Farming Experience	1.24	0.803426
Market Distance	1.05	0.951491
Farm Distance	1.77	0.566437
Mean VIF	1.34

Table

Variable	Sex	Oxen Access	Off-farm	Market Information	Extension	Credit Access	Perception
Sex	1.0000
Oxen Access	0.0718	1.0000
Off-farm Activity	−0.2494	−0.3254	1.0000
Market Info.	0.0653	0.1247	−0.0526	1.0000
Extension Access	0.1372	0.4835	−0.2595	−0.0664	1.0000
Credit Access	0.2262	0.7409	−0.2760	0.1734	0.5075	1.0000
Perception	0.0806	0.1504	−0.0641	0.2475	−0.1105	0.1645	1.0000