Potential significance of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) to global food and feed industries

Figures & data

Table 1. Uses of kenaf plant as a potential food and feed

Various kenaf plant parts	It’s uses as food or feed	References
Leaves	The phenolic and antioxidant-rich young tender kenaf leaves and shoots are used as a vegetable for human consumption when cooked. Because of the high palatability and crude proteins, kenaf’s young leaves can be used in livestock feeding recently. Moreover, when these leaves are dry, they are crushed into powder thus added in various food types improving calcium and fibre contents.	Alexopoulou et al. (2015); Ryu et al. (2017); Ammar et al. (2020)
Seeds	Kenaf seed has been employed as an alternate derivative of edible oil (first class cooking oil and margarine) for human consumption because of its distinctive composition. According to various studies, kenaf seed’s constituents can be used to create novel functional foods, animal feed (protein and energy supplement), and pharmaceuticals. Kenaf seed-derived products like kenaf seed flour, defatted kenaf seed meal and kenaf seed protein concentrates as a result they have health supporting activities. This seed also produces milk, which can be precipitated and results in curd that can be turned into a solid block of various softness like peanut tofu, sesame tofu and soybean tofu with the help on coagulants such as calcium sulphate, magnesium chloride, citric acid	Chan et al. (2013); W.Y. Cheng et al. (2016) Zuo et al. (2016); Sato (2017); Wongsrisiri and Luangsakul (2017).
Stalks	Because of the high palatability and contains significant amounts of crude protein at an early stage of growth, kenaf stalks can be utilised as a potential protein supplement for animal feeding.	Ammar et al. (2020)
Roots	Although kenaf roots are used as food for humans, they have no flavour and are exceedingly fibrous.	Owoade et al. (2019)
Flowers/Fruits	There are few reports of kenaf flowers being used as food, however the juice made from the blossoms is combined with sugar and black pepper as a biliousness treatment. Moreover, flowers together with fruits are utilised as vegetables in human food since they contain high quantities of crude proteins, antioxidants and phenolic compounds.	Ryu et al. (2017). Ijinu et al. (2022)

Figure 1. Whole kenaf plant.

Figure 2. Kenaf seeds.

Figure 3. The entire kenaf leaf.

Figure 4. The divided kenaf leaf.

Figure 5. Kenaf young stalks.

Figure 6. The kenaf flower.

Table 2. Secondary metabolites and their functions/health benefits in each tissue of kenaf plant species

Plant tissue	Metabolites	Function of a metabolite/ health benefits	Reference
Seed	Phenolic compounds, Flavonoids, Omega-3, Sterols, essential oils, fatty acids, tannins, alkaloids, steroids, polyphenols, saponins	Aids in weight increase and treats bruises; Performs anti-inflammatory and antioxidant functions; great importance as chemo preventive agents; sources of natural anti-cancer agents; used externally to treat aches and bruises also considered in fattening	(Kobaisy et al., 2001; G. A. Agbor et al., 2005; Kubmarawa et al., 2009; Mariod et al., 2010; Alexopoulou et al., 2013; Mohamed et al. 1995; Jin et al., 2013; Ryu et al., 2013; Abdel Ghafar et al., 2013; Nandagopalan et al., 2015; Obouayeba et al., 2015)
Leaf	Phenylpropanoids, E-phytol, 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, linolenic acid, vitamins E and K1, Phenolic compounds, Flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids	Used for bilious, diabetes, cough and throat treatment; aids in weight gain, anaemia and fatigue; exhibits antibacterial activity against Staphylococcous aureus, Colletotrichum fragariae, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Colletotrichum accutatum; performs anti-inflammatory and antioxidant functions; good use in the management of arthrosclerosis	(Kobaisy et al., 2001; Khare, 2007; A.G. Agbor et al., 2004; Kubmarawa et al., 2009; Jin et al., 2013; Alexopoulou et al., 2013; Ebije et al., 2014)
Stem bark	Hexadecenoic acid, octadecatrienoic acid, caffeic acid phenolic compounds, Kaempferitrin	Treatment of Guinea worm disease and anaemia in Africa; acute lowering effect on blood glucose levels in diabetic rats and showed decreased lipid peroxidation and antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects in macrophage cells; utilised in treating fatigue as hematinic agent	(Rauter et al., 2002; Alexopoulou et al., 2013; Ryu et al., 2017)
Flower	Flower juice, polyphenols, anthocyanins, cannabinidin	Used for treatment of biliousness and bruises; performs antioxidant function	(Uddin et al., 2012; Alexopoulou et al., 2013; Salem et al., 2014; Ryu et al., 2017)

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