Effect of climate variability adaptation strategies on maize yield in the Cape Coast Municipality, Ghana

Figures & data

Figure 1. Map of Cape Coast Metropolitan Assembly showing study areas.

Source: Centre for Remote and Geographic Information Services, 2021.

Table 1. Independent variables used

Variables	Measurements	Apriori Expectation	References
Sex	Male = 1, female = 0	+	Anum et al. (2022), Asante et al. (2021), Ojo and Baiyegunhi (2020), Tambo (2016), Yaro et al. (2015)
Age	Completed Years – continuous variable	±	Enimu and Onome (2018), Gebru et al. (2020), Kgosikoma et al. (2018), Mulwa et al. (2017), Mwinkom et al. (2021), Tambo (2016), Thinda et al. (2020) Enimu and Onome (2018), Gebru et al. (2020), Kgosikoma et al. (2018), Mulwa et al. (2017), Mwinkom et al. (2021), Tambo (2016), Thinda et al. (2020)
Education	Formal = 1, non-formal = 0	±	Anum et al. (2022), Kgosikoma et al. (2018)
Experience	Completed Years – continuous variable	+	Denkyirah et al. (2017), Ojo and Baiyegunhi (2020)
Religion	Muslim =0, Christian = 1	+	Aidoo et al. (2021), Fagariba et al. (2018), Martey and Kuwornu (2021)
Household size	Total number including members who have lived in the household for more than six months – Continuous variable	+	Aidoo et al. (2021), Denkyirah et al. (2017), Diallo et al. (2020), Mwinkom et al. (2021)
Farm size	Total farm size in hectares - Continuous variable	+	Ankrah et al. (2023), Denkyirah et al. (2017), Martey and Kuwornu (2021), Mwinkom et al. (2021)
Temperature	Agree/strongly agree that it has increased = 1, otherwise = 0	±	Ankrah et al. (2023), Asare-Nuamah et al. (2019), Ayanlade et al. (2017), Limantol et al. (2016)
Rainfall	Agree/strongly agree that it has increased = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Asare-Nuamah et al. (2019), Limantol et al. (2016), Yaro (2013)
Sunshine	Agree/strongly agree that it has increased = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Ankrah et al. (2023), Mwinkom et al. (2021), Enimu and Onome (2018), Tambo (2016), Guodaar (2015), Ashby et al. (2012)
FBO membership	Yes = 1, No = 0	±	Ashby et al. (2012), Enimu and Onome (2018), Guodaar (2015), Mwinkom et al. (2021), Tambo (2016)
Borrowing of funds	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Asante et al. (2021), Le Dang et al. (2014), Ochieng et al. (2017), Wossen et al. (2014)
Water conservation	Adopt= 1, otherwise = 0	+	Atinkut and Mebrat (2016), Delgado et al. (2021), Kato et al. (2011)
Agricultural diversification	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Akinnagbe and Irohibe (2014), Baffour-Ata et al. (2021), Dumenu and Obeng (2016), Kosoe and Ahmed (2022)
Agroforestry	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Akinnagbe and Irohibe (2014), Marie et al. (2020)
Drought resistant variety	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Fisher et al. (2015), Ochieng et al. (2017), Singh et al. (2014), Tofa et al. (2021)
Planting calendar	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Acharjee et al. (2019), Adavi et al. (2018), Getachew et al. (2021), Woznicki et al. (2015)
Tillage methods	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Aguilera et al. (2013), Liu et al. (2020), Powlson et al. (2014)
Irrigation	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Marie et al. (2020), Mukherjee and Schwabe (2015), Sadiq et al. (2019), Vicuna et al. (2014)
Early/late planting	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Kassie et al. (2015), Lv et al. (2020), Saddique et al. (2020), Tachie-Obeng et al. (2013)
Shifting cultivation	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Choudhury et al. (2022), Hosen et al. (2020), Porter et al. (2019), Upadhaya et al. (2020)
Crop rotation	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Ankrah et al. (2023), Holzkämper et al. (2015), Nendel et al. (2014) Teixeira et al. (2018)
Pest & disease control	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	+	Anderson et al. (2020), Campbell et al. (2016), Denkyirah et al. (2016)
Application of indigenous knowledge	Adopt = 1, otherwise = 0	±	Ankrah et al. (2022), (2023), Ayanlade et al. (2017), Roco et al. (2015)

Table 2. Farmers demographic characteristics

Variables	Percentage (%)
Sex
Male	15
Female	85
Total	100
Marital Status
Single	19
Married	66
Divorced	7
Widow	8
Total	100
Education
Basic School	21
SHS/Secondary	5
Technical/Vocational	3
Non-formal	67
Tertiary	4
Total	100

Source: Fieldwork, 2021, see also Ankrah et al. (2023).

Table 3. Summary statistics of continuous variables

Continuous Variable	Mean	Std. Dev.	Min.	Max.
Income (US$)	456.44	222.60	162.71	1,423.72
Farming experience (years)	13.41	5.41	2	30
Farm size (hectares)	1.08	0.59	0.4	4
Maize yield (tonnes)	1.12	0.548	0.4	3.5

Source: Field survey, 2021.

Table 4. Multiple linear regression estimation of CVAS on maize yield

	(1)	(2)
Variables	Dependent: Maize yield in tonnes per hectare
Borrowing of funds		−0.080
		(0.090)
Water conservation		0.050
		(0.082)
Agriculture diversification		0.202**
		(0.091)
Agroforestry		−0.196*
		(0.103)
Drought resistant variety		−0.134*
		(0.074)
changes in planting calendar		0.132
		(0.112)
Tillage planting		0.404**
		(0.169)
Irrigation		0.237*
		(0.133)
Early/late planting		0.123
		(0.082)
Shifting cultivation		−0.054
		(0.098)
Crop rotation		0.059
		(0.099)
Pest and disease control		0.067
		(0.081)
Application of indigenous knowledge		−0.041
		(0.090)
Age	0.002	−0.000
	(0.005)	(0.005)
Household size	−0.017	0.000
	(0.018)	(0.017)
Marital status	0.140	0.106
	(0.089)	(0.087)
Education	−0.035	−0.027
	(0.085)	(0.085)
Experience	0.018*	0.018*
	(0.011)	(0.010)
religion	0.131	0.164*
	(0.094)	(0.096)
Perceived impact of climate	−0.091	−0.200
	(0.120)	(0.132)
Seed type	0.101	0.172
	(0.114)	(0.124)
FBO	−0.010	0.028
	(0.091)	(0.090)
Landownership	0.067	0.069
	(0.104)	(0.108)
Sex	0.210**	0.206**
	(0.094)	(0.090)
Intensity of CVAS	0.037*
	(0.022)
Constant	0.334	0.259
	(0.238)	(0.249)
Observations	196	196
R-squared	0.116	0.235
Prob > F	0.048	0.005

Notes: Robust standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1

Figure 2. Overlap plot of CVAS adoption.

Table 5. Treatment effects estimation of CVAS on maize yield

CVAS adoption	Maize yield (tonne/ha)
Borrowing of funds	−0.110 (0.108)
Irrigation	0.293** (0.130)
Planting in rows	0.131 (0.778)
Crop rotation	−0.014 (0.099)
Early/late planting	0.192* (0.103)
Tillage methods	0.416 (0.170)
Agricultural diversification	0.153 (0.101)
Agroforestry	−0.116 (0.110)
Water conservation	0.068 (0.082)
Application of indigenous knowledge	0.003 (0.096)
Drought resistant variety	−0.040 (0.082)
Shifting cultivation	−0.055 (0.106)
Pest & disease control	0.084 (0.080)
Number of observation (N)	196

Notes: Robust standard errors are reported in parenthesis.

Table

Variable	VIF	1/VIF
Age	1.64	0.609972
Experience	1.59	0.628054
Household size	1.34	0.744983
Landownership	1.21	0.82333
FBO	1.21	0.827887
Intensity of CVAS	1.16	0.865286
Marital status	1.14	0.878643
Seed variety	1.09	0.914989
Perceived impact of climate variability	1.07	0.933952
Education	1.06	0.943021
Religion	1.04	0.960705
Sex	1.03	0.966743
Mean VIF	1.22

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