Prioritising critical success factors of total quality management in autonomous driving business models: A comparison between Germany and China

Figures & data

Table 1. The five layers of an autonomous driving ecosystem (Lüers et al., 2017; Rauen et al., 2017; Datta et al., 2017; lima et al., 2016; Mauer et al., 2015, p. 9–36; Wang & Meckl, 2020)

Layers	Components of layers	Descriptions of actors
Layer 1	Internet of Things (IoT) infrastructure providers	Providers of data centres, cloud services, and telecommunications
Layer 2	IoT platform providers	Providers of platform solutions that deliver apps and software
Layer 3	App and software developers	Developers and providers of software solutions
Layer 4	Trusted Authorities	Public or private organisations that certify the RSUs, S-Cars, and S-components
Layer 5	Producers which manufacture S-Cars, S-components, and RSUs	Produce the sentient components with active sensors and actuators in the ecosystem

Figure 1. AD-ecosystem (Wang & Meckl, 2020).

Table 2. Matrix of the quality principles of IATF 16949 and the CSFs of TQM (Wang & Meckl, 2020)

Quality principles of IATF 16949	CSFs of Vimal Kumar & Sharma, 2014	CSFs of Aquilani et al., 2017
Customer focus	Customersatisfaction/Customer interaction (SN 10)	Customer focus/satisfaction (2)
Leadership	Involvement of top management (SN 2)	Leadership/top management commitment/role of top management (1)
Engagement of people	Linking with HR practices (SN 3)	Training and education (3) Employee commitment and attitude/involvement (9)
Process approach	Quality management—Process management (SN 4)	Process quality management (6)
Improvement	Continuous improvement (SN 5)	Continuous improvement (7)
Evidence-based decision making	TQM tools and techniques (SN 7)	Measurement of metric systems/data information and analysis/quality data and reporting (4)
Relationship management	Quality management (SN 4)—Supplier quality management	Supplier collaboration/management/supplier quality (management) (5)

Table 3. 15 CSFs of AD-TQM (Wang & Meckl, 2020, pp. 21–22)

Current CSFs of TQM in the automotive industry	CSFs as hypotheses of AD-TQM
1. Customer focus/satisfaction	1. Handling of complaints must be harmonised in the whole ecosystem, i.e., for all five layers.
	2. An emergency plan for products, processes, services and systems that incorporates all five layers must be integrated into the ecosystem.
2. Leadership	3. Top management´s involvement with all actors for all five layers in the ecosystem of autonomous driving is a necessary precondition for a high- level AD-TQM system.
3. Engagement of people	4. Employees should be trained and involved in the processes of the ecosystem of autonomous driving.
4. Process approach	5. Process approach remains the same: Organisations should be built as systems with interlinked processes, of which the key TQM processes should be identified.
5. Improvement	6. Digital curriculum vitae processing should be realised and implemented for all components in the ecosystem.
	7. Predictive maintenance processing should be realised and implemented for all components in the ecosystem.
6. Evidence-based decision making	8. Data and information exchange for all five layers in the ecosystem should be coordinated and monitored.
7. Relationship management	9. A production process and product release procedure should be defined for all five layers in the ecosystem.
	10. The audit process should be performed for all five layers in the ecosystem.
	11. The responsibilities of the public and private organisations for the processing of the components in the ecosystem must be defined and a legal framework must be established.
No description	12. A suitable application environment (temperature range, dampness range, visual clarity, road conditions, etc.) with integrated automated measurements and a stop (no drive) function, which operates when environmental factors are out of application range, should be implemented for the S-Cars.
No description	13. Different quality requirements for special important characteristics of all five layers in the ecosystem should be classified, realised, and controlled.
No description	14. The data protection principles should be defined and implemented in the ecosystem.
No description	15. The platform, frameworks and interlinks in the ecosystem must be standardised.

Table 4. The profile of the interviewees as well as their work organisations

Layers	China	Referencing organisations	Germany	Referencing organisations
IoT infrastructure providers	5 G senior expert	One of the largest 5 G infrastructure providers (IPs) in the world (two responses); One of the largest 5 G IPs in the world; the China business unit (CBU) of the world’s largest semiconductor chip manufacturer	Professor	A research institute for 5 G of a technological university; a system supplier for the hardware of 5 G equipment; German business unit (GBU) of one of the largest 5 G IPs in the world; one of the largest internet infrastructure providers in the world
	5 G senior expert		Head of business development
	5 G senior expert		CEO
	Project leader 5 G and cloud technology		CTO
IoT platform providers	Senior expert AD-ecosystem	One of the largest AI and internet companies (AIICs) in the world; one of the largest AIICs in the world; one of the largest AIICs in the world; an electric vehicle manufacturer based on the investments of several AIICs; an electric vehicle manufacturer based on the investments of several AIICs	Senior expert AD-ecosystem	GBU of one of the largest AIICs in the world; an IoT ecosystem-oriented consulting company (four responses)
	Project leader expert AD smart suspension		Vice president Europe
	Senior expert AD-ecosystem		Senior expert AD-ecosystem
	Project leader expert AD smart suspension		Senior expert AD-ecosystem
	Senior expert AD cloud technology		Senior expert AD-ecosystem
Software and app developers	Programming and software engineer Big Data	A Big Data institute of a technological university; a Big Data department of a multinational home appliances and consumer electronics company; a Big Data-oriented consulting and programming company (three responses)	Programming expert for AD-ecosystem	A Big Data institute of Europe’s largest application-oriented research organisation; a former start-up of developing affordable electric vehicles; a Big Data institute of a technological university; a Big Data-oriented consulting company; one of the largest enterprise software companies
	Project expert Big Data		Programming expert for smart logistic system
	Vice president		Programming expert for Big Data
	Product and architecture design		Senior expert for Big Data
	CTO China		Vice president
Trusted authorities	Vice director	An economy office of a provincial government; an IT research and strategy centre of a provincial government; an analytical strategy centre of a provincial government; an advisory and strategy centre of a provincial government	Board of directors	A traffic planning office of a city government; a famous economy association; a research and strategy centre of a national government; a transport planning office of a city government
	Senior manager		President
	Senior manager		Director
	Senior manager and advisory board		Project leader for AD-ecosystem
Automotive OEMs and system suppliers	CEO	OEMs: one of the “Big Four” Chinese automakers (two responses); a Chinese multinational automotive company; China’s largest SUV and pickup manufacturer; the CBU of one of the largest worldwide OEM SYSTEM SUPPLIERS: a system supplier for smart suspension system (SSS) (three responses); a system supplier for SSS; the CBU of an European system supplier for SSS; the CBU of an European system supplier for SSS; the CBU of an European system supplier for injection moulding; the CBU of one of the largest worldwide system supplier; a research institute of a technological university	CEO	OEMs: one of the largest premium car manufacturers in the world; one of the largest worldwide OEM SYSTEM SUPPLIERS: a system supplier for SSS (two responses); a system supplier for SSS (three responses); one of the largest worldwide system supplier (two responses); one of the largest worldwide system supplier (two responses); a system supplier for precision machining; a GBU of an Asian system supplier for injection moulding; a system supplier of special production equipment
	CEO		Deputy vice president of quality
	General manager of AD smart suspension system		Quality planning director
	Vice president		Quality manufacturing expert
	Smart suspension director		Vice president of sales
	Smart suspension expert		Senior development expert
	Project director smart suspension system		Innovation management expert
	AD expert		Vice president
	Quality expert of smart suspension system		CTO
	Sales manager		Sales manager
	Sales director		Senior development expert
	Smart suspension expert		Senior development expert
	Senior purchasing manager		Project leader
	Senior expert for automotive architecture		Senior development expert

Table 5. Evaluations of the six responses from the interviews

Different prioritising of CSFs	German point	Chinese point	Expert 1 from Germany	Expert 2 from China	Expert 3 from Germany	Expert 4 from China	Expert 5 from Germany	Expert 6 from China
CSF 11	6.81%	7.66%	5%	10%	n/a	n/a	6%	8%
CSF 9	6.94%	7.38%	7%	8%	7%	10%	6%	7%
CSF 2	6.94%	7.34%	n/a	n/a	6%	10%	4%	7%
CSF 7	7.03%	6.53%	8%	5%	n/a	4%	10%	n/a
CSF 12	7.00%	6.56%	8%	5%	7%	5%	n/a	4%
CSF 6	5.72%	6.53%	n/a	n/a	6%	7%	2%	8%
CSF 1	6.00%	5.94%	6%	5%	6%	n/a	n/a	5%

Table 6. Weights of the CSFs of AD-TQM according to the four levels of importance in total and between Germany and China

CSFs of AD-TQM	Ranking (total)	Ranking (Germany)	Ranking (China)
8. Data and information exchange for all five layers in the ecosystem should be coordinated and monitored.	Very important	Very important	Very important
11. The responsibilities of the public and private organisations for the processing of the components in the ecosystem must be defined and a legal framework must be established.	Important	Neutral	Important
9. A production process and product release procedure should be defined for all five layers in the ecosystem.	Important	Neutral	Important
2. An emergency plan for products, processes, services, and systems that incorporates all five layers must be integrated into the ecosystem.	Important	Neutral	Important
7. Predictive maintenance processing should be realised and implemented for all components in the ecosystem.	Neutral	Important	Neutral
12. A suitable application environment (temperature range, dampness range, visual clarity, road conditions, etc.) with integrated automated measurements and a stop (no drive) function, which operates when environmental factors are out of application range, should be implemented for the S-Cars.	Neutral	Important	Neutral
15. The platform, frameworks, and interlinks in the ecosystem must be standardised.	Neutral	Neutral	Neutral
13. Different quality requirements for special important characteristics of all five layers in the ecosystem should be classified, realised, and controlled.	Neutral	Neutral	Neutral
10. The audit process should be performed for all five layers in the ecosystem.	Neutral	Neutral	Neutral
3. Top management´s involvement with all actors for all five layers in the ecosystem of autonomous driving is a necessary precondition for a high-level AD-TQM-system.	Neutral	Neutral	Neutral
5. Process approach remains the same: Organisations should be built as systems with interlinked processes, of which the key TQM processes should be identified.	Neutral	Neutral	Neutral
14. The data protection principles should be defined and implemented in the ecosystem.	Neutral	Neutral	Neutral
6. Digital curriculum vitae processing should be realised and implemented for all components in the ecosystem.	Neutral	Less important	Neutral
1. Handling of complaints must be harmonised in the whole ecosystem, i.e., for all five layers.	Less important	Neutral	Less important
4. Employees should be trained and involved in the processes of the ecosystem of autonomous driving.	Less important	Less important	Less important
16.The participants of all five layers should plan and prioritise their limited resources for the most important processes of AD-TQM.	new CSF	new CSF	new CSF

Table A1. Consistency ratios of the 64 quantitative empirical studies

Expert	Layer	Country	CR	Expert	Layer	Country	CR
1	Infrastructure	CN	0.00	33	TA	GE	0.01
2	Infrastructure	CN	0.02	34	TA	GE	0.01
3	Infrastructure	CN	0.01	35	TA	GE	0.05
4	Infrastructure	CN	0.00	36	TA	GE	0.00
5	Infrastructure	GE	0.00	37	Automotive	CN	0.00
6	Infrastructure	GE	0.00	38	Automotive	CN	0.00
7	Infrastructure	GE	0.01	39	Automotive	CN	0.00
8	Infrastructure	GE	0.01	40	Automotive	CN	0.01
9	IoTPP	CN	0.01	41	Automotive	CN	0.00
10	IoTPP	CN	0.02	42	Automotive	CN	0.01
11	IoTPP	CN	0.01	43	Automotive	CN	0.00
12	IoTPP	CN	0.01	44	Automotive	CN	0.01
13	IoTPP	CN	0.01	45	Automotive	CN	0.00
14	IoTPP	GE	0.00	46	Automotive	CN	0.00
15	IoTPP	GE	0.00	47	Automotive	CN	0.00
16	IoTPP	GE	0.00	48	Automotive	CN	0.00
17	IoTPP	GE	0.00	49	Automotive	CN	0.00
18	IoTPP	GE	0.01	50	Automotive	CN	0.01
19	Software	CN	0.00	51	Automotive	GE	0.00
20	Software	CN	0.04	52	Automotive	GE	0.00
21	Software	CN	0.00	53	Automotive	GE	0.01
22	Software	CN	0.00	54	Automotive	GE	0.01
23	Software	CN	0.01	55	Automotive	GE	0.02
24	Software	GE	0.00	56	Automotive	GE	0.02
25	Software	GE	0.01	57	Automotive	GE	0.00
26	Software	GE	0.00	58	Automotive	GE	0.00
27	Software	GE	0.00	59	Automotive	GE	0.02
28	Software	GE	0.04	60	Automotive	GE	0.01
29	TA	CN	0.00	61	Automotive	GE	0.00
30	TA	CN	0.00	62	Automotive	GE	0.00
31	TA	CN	0.01	63	Automotive	GE	0.00
32	TA	CN	0.02	64	Automotive	GE	0.00

Table A2. Weighting of 15 CSFs of AD-TQM (total)

CSFs of AD-TQM	Normalised priority weights
8. Data and information exchange for all five layers in the ecosystem should be coordinated and monitored.	8.08%
11. The responsibilities of the public and private organisations for the processing of the components in the ecosystem must be defined and a legal framework must be established.	7.23%
9. A production process and product release procedure should be defined for all five layers in the ecosystem.	7.16%
2. An emergency plan for products, processes, services, and systems that incorporates all five layers must be integrated into the ecosystem.	7.14%
7. Predictive maintenance processing should be realised and implemented for all components in the ecosystem.	6.78%
12. A suitable application environment (temperature range, dampness range, visual clarity, road conditions, etc.) with integrated automated measurements and a stop (no drive) function, which operates when environmental factors are out of application range, should be implemented for S-Cars.	6.78%
15. The platform, frameworks, and interlinks in the ecosystem must be standardised.	6.73%
13. Different quality requirements for special important characteristics of all five layers in the ecosystem should be classified, realised, and controlled.	6.69%
10. The audit process should be performed for all five layers in the ecosystem.	6.48%
3. Top management´s involvement with all actors for all five layers in the ecosystem of autonomous driving is a necessary precondition for a high-level AD-TQM-system.	6.36%
5. Process approach remains the same: Organisations should be built as systems with interlinked processes, of which the key TQM processes should be identified.	6.36%
14. The data protection principles should be defined and implemented in the ecosystem.	6.34%
6. Digital curriculum vitae processing should be realised and implemented for all components in the ecosystem.	6.13%
1. Handling of complaints must be harmonised in the whole ecosystem, i.e., for all five layers.	5.97%
4. Employees should be trained and involved in the processes of the ecosystem of autonomous driving.	5.77%

Table A3. Weighting of 15 CSFs of AD-TQM (German)

CSFs of AD-TQM	Normalised priority weights
8. Data and information exchange for all five layers in the ecosystem should be coordinated and monitored.	8.13%
7. Predictive maintenance processing should be realised and implemented for all components in the ecosystem.	7.03%
12. A suitable application environment (temperature range, dampness range, visual clarity, road conditions, etc.) with integrated automated measurements and a stop (no drive) function, which operates when environmental factors are out of application range, should be implemented for the S-Cars.	7.00%
2. An emergency plan for products, processes, services, and systems that incorporates all five layers must be integrated into the ecosystem.	6.94%
9. A production process and product release procedure should be defined for all five layers in the ecosystem.	6.94%
15. The platform, frameworks, and interlinks in the ecosystem must be standardised.	6.94%
13. Different quality requirements for special important characteristics of all five layers in the ecosystem should be classified, realised, and controlled.	6.84%
11. The responsibilities of the public and private organisations for the processing of the components in the ecosystem must be defined and a legal framework must be established	6.81%
10. The audit process should be performed for all five layers in the ecosystem.	6.78%
14. The data protection principles should be defined and implemented in the ecosystem.	6.50%
5. Process approach remains the same: Organisations should be built as systems with interlinked processes, of which the key TQM processes should be identified.	6.47%
3. Top management´s involvement with all actors for all five layers in the ecosystem of autonomous driving is a necessary precondition for a high-level AD-TQM-system.	6.03%
1. Handling of complaints must be harmonised in the whole ecosystem, i.e., for all five layers.	6.00%
4. Employees should be trained and involved in the processes of the ecosystem of autonomous driving.	5.88%
6. Digital curriculum vitae processing should be realised and implemented for all components in the ecosystem.	5.72%

Table A4. Weighting of 15 CSFs of AD-TQM (Chinese)

CSFs of AD-TQM	Normalised priority weights
8. Data and information exchange for all five layers in the ecosystem should be coordinated and monitored.	8.03%
11. The responsibilities of the public and private organisations for the processing of the components in the ecosystem must be defined and a legal framework must be established.	7.66%
9. A production process and product release procedure should be defined for all five layers in the ecosystem.	7.38%
2. An emergency plan for products, processes, services, and systems that incorporates all five layers must be integrated into the ecosystem.	7.34%
3. Top management´s involvement with all actors for all five layers in the ecosystem of autonomous driving is a necessary precondition for a high-level AD-TQM-system.	6.69%
12. A suitable application environment (temperature range, dampness range, visual clarity, road conditions, etc.) with integrated automated measurements and a stop (no drive) function, which operates when environmental factors are out of application range, should be implemented for the S-Cars.	6.56%
6. Digital curriculum vitae processing should be realised and implemented for all components in the ecosystem.	6.53%
7. Predictive maintenance processing should be realised and implemented for all components in the ecosystem.	6.53%
13. Different quality requirements for special important characteristics of all five layers in the ecosystem should be classified, realised, and controlled.	6.53%
15. The platform, frameworks and interlinks in the ecosystem must be standardised.	6.53%
5. Process approach remains the same: Organisations should be built as systems with interlinked processes, of which the key TQM processes should be identified.	6.25%
10. The audit process should be performed for all five layers in the ecosystem.	6.19%
14. The data protection principles should be defined and implemented in the ecosystem.	6.19%
1. Handling of complaints must be harmonised in the whole ecosystem, i.e., for all five layers.	5.94%
4. Employees should be trained and involved in the processes of the ecosystem of autonomous driving.	5.66%

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