How transformational leadership influences employees’ job-related outcomes through public service motivation: Does power distance orientation matter?

Figures & data

Figure 1. Conceptual framework.

Table 1. The result of the pilot test

Construct	Number of items	The minimum value of corrected Item-Total Correlation	Cronbach’s Alpha
Transformational leadership	5	0.679	0.896
Public service motivation	5	0.725	0.930
Job satisfaction	4	0.631	0.865
Employee engagement	6	0.596	0.914
Job performance	4	0.520	0.847
Power distance orientation	5	0.456	0.796

Table 2. Demographic characteristics

N = 605		Frequency	Percent
Gender	Female	378	62.5
	Male	227	37.5
Marital status	Single	215	35.5
	Married	390	64.5
Age groups	18–25	123	20.3
	26–35	271	44.8
	36–45	171	28.3
	>45	40	6.6
Educational level	College/University	486	80.3
	Postgraduate	119	19.7

Table 3. Construct validity and reliability

Construct	Internal consistency reliability		Convergent validity		Model fit	Fornell-Larcker criterion
	CA	CR	MVOL	AVE	R^2	Age	EE	Edu	Gender	JP	JS	M- status	PDO	PSM	TL
Age	-	-	-	-	-	(1.000)	−0.015	0.054	0.211	0.030	0.098	0.084	0.110	0.036	0.064
EE	0.881	0.911	0.640	0.632	0.569		(0.795)	−0.056	0.015	0.509	0.567	−0.040	0.468	0.704	0.457
Edu	-	-	-	-	-			(1.000)	0.029	0.011	−0.013	0.055	−0.145	−0.035	−0.006
Gender	-	-	-	-	-				(1.000)	0.064	0.088	−0.067	0.043	0.059	0.071
JP	0.787	0.863	0.543	0.619	0.385					(0.787)	0.473	0.039	0.423	0.501	0.485
JS	0.838	0.893	0.723	0.677	0.363						(0.823)	−0.031	0.399	0.532	0.472
M-status	-	-	-	-	-							(1.000)	−0.059	0.010	0.033
PDO	0.796	0.861	0.539	0.559	-								(0.748)	0.419	0.735
PSM	0.881	0.914	0.648	0.683	0.194									(0.826)	0.400
TL	0.845	0.887	0.693	0.612	-										(0.782)

Notes: Square roots of average variance extracted (AVE) of latent variables are shown in the parentheses; CA = Cronbach’s Alpha; CR = Composite reliability; MVOL = The minimum value of outer loadings; Edu = Educational level; M-status = Marital status.

Table 4. Collinearity assessment

Construct	The maximum of outer VIF values	Inter VIF values
		EE	JP	JS	PSM
Transformational leadership	2.375	2.374	2.481	2.226	2.176
Public service motivation	2.852	1.502	2.129	1.240
Job satisfaction	4.046	1.569	1.705
Employee engagement	3.448		2.361
Job performance	2.518
Power distance orientation	2.321	2.267	2.473	2.267	2.176
Gender	1.000		1.067
Marital status	1.000		1.042
Age	1.000		1.094
Educational level	1.000		1.052

Figure 2. PSL-SEM model.

Table 5. Hypothesis testing results

Hypothesis	Relationship			Original Sample	Standard Deviation	T-Statistics	P-Values	Result
H1	TL	→	JP	0.254	0.042	6.000	0.000	Supported
H2	TL	→	PSM	0.400	0.033	12.061	0.000	Supported
H3	PSM	→	JP	0.198	0.051	3.916	0.000	Supported
H4	TL	→	JS	0.308	0.032	9.495	0.000	Supported
H5	PSM	→	JS	0.408	0.034	11.936	0.000	Supported
H6	JS	→	JP	0.153	0.040	3.850	0.000	Supported
H7	TL	→	EE	0.141	0.029	4.947	0.000	Supported
H8	PSM	→	EE	0.534	0.034	15.934	0.000	Supported
H9	JS	→	EE	0.216	0.037	5.826	0.000	Supported
H10	EE	→	JP	0.170	0.064	2.650	0.008	Supported
Control variables
H12a	Gender	→	JP	0.024	0.031	0.774	0.439	Not Supported
H12b	M- status	→	JP	0.041	0.030	1.370	0.171	Not Supported
H12c	Age	→	JP	−0.016	0.035	0.463	0.644	Not Supported
H12d	Edu	→	JP	0.029	0.031	0.926	0.355	Not Supported

Table 6. The result of the mediating role of public service motivation

Hypothesis	Relationship	Direct effect	Indirect effect	Total effect	Mediating effect	Result
H11a	TL→PSM→ JP	0.254***	0.079***	0.333***	Partial Mediation	Supported
H11b	TL→PSM→ JS	0.308***	0.163***	0.471***	Partial Mediation	Supported
H11c	TL→PSM→ EE	0.141***	0.214***	0.355***	Partial Mediation	Supported

Note: *** = p < 0.001

Figure 3. The moderating effect of power distance orientation.

Figure 4. PDO diminished the positive relationship between TL and PSM.

Table 7. The result of moderating variable

Hypothesis	Relationship	Regression Weight	Moderating effect
H12a	TL → PSM	0.400***	Supported
	Moderating Effect 1 → PSM	−0.124***
H12b	TL → JS	0.308***	Supported
	Moderating Effect 1 → JS	−0.060**
H12c	TL → EE	0.141***	Not Supported
	Moderating Effect 1 → EE	−0.004
H12d	TL → JP	0.254***	Supported
	Moderating Effect 1 → JP	−0.072**

Note: *** = p < 0.001, ** = p < 0.05

Figure 5. PDO diminished the positive relationship between TL and JS.

Figure 6. PDO diminished the positive relationship between TL and JP.

Table

Construct	Items
Transformational leadership
	My manager clearly articulates his/her vision of the future
	My manager leads by setting a good example
	My manager challenges me to think about old problems in new ways
	My manager says things that make me proud to be part of the organization
	My manager has a clear sense of where my organization should be in five years
Public service motivation
	Meaningful public service is very important to me
	I am often reminded by daily events about how dependent we are on one another
	Making a difference in society means more to me than personal achievements
	I am prepared to make enormous sacrifices for the good of society
	I am not afraid to go to bat for the rights of others even if it means I will be ridiculed.
Job satisfaction
	I feel fairly well satisfied with my present job
	I am satisfied with my job for the time being
	I like my job better than the average employee does
	I find real enjoyment in my work
Employee engagement
	At my work, I feel bursting with energy
	At my job, I feel strong and vigorous
	I am enthusiastic about my job
	My job inspires me
	When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work
	I am immersed in my work
Job performance
	I always complete the duties specified in my job description
	I meet all the formal performance requirements of the job
	I fulfill all responsibilities required by my job
	I never neglect aspects of the job that I am obligated to perform
Power distance orientation
	In most situations, managers should make decisions without consulting their subordinates
	In work-related matters, managers have a right to expect obedience from their subordinates
	Employees who often question authority sometimes keep their managers from being effective
	Once a top-level leader makes a decision, people working for the organization should not question it
	Employees should not express disagreements with their managers