Vertical accountability among ministries of state in an emerging economy: A case study of Ghana

Figures & data

Table 1. Summary of the types of accountability based on the extant literature

Type of Accountability	Author/Year
Vertical accountability	Relly (2012); So (2014); Mechkova et al. (2019); Lührmann et al. (2020)
Horizontal accountability	Schillemans (2011); Mechkova et al. (2019) Lührmann et al. (2020); Rajala and Kokko (2022)
Diagonal accountability	Gelber (2017); Mechkova et al. (2019); Lührmann et al. (2020); Laebens and Lührmann (2021)
Public accountability	Bovens et al. (2014); Schillemans (2015) Busuioc and Lodge (2016); Thomann et al. (2018)
Political accountability	Fox and Shotts (2009); Nannicini et al. (2013) Danhoundo et al. (2018); Albanese et al. (2021)
Administrative accountability	Poulsen (2009); Tan and Egan (2018); Wang et al. (2021)
Professional accountability	Banks (2013); Ryder (2015); Thomann et al. (2018)
Social accountability	Danhoundo et al. (2018); Brummel (2021); Shotter (2019)
Self/Personal accountability	Brownell et al. (2010) Tan and Egan (2018) Ahmed and Jackson (2021)

Note: Compiled by authors

Table 2. Sample description for respondents’ interviews for this study (n = 30)

Background characteristics	Frequency	Percent (%)
Gender
Male	17	56.7
Female	13	43.3
Level of Education
Bachelors	2	6.7
Masters	28	93.3
Job Position
Director Administration	7	23.3
Director Human Resource	5	16.7
Director Research Statistic & Information Mgt	2	6.7
Director Public Policy Monitoring &Evaluation	2	6.7
Director Procurement	4	13.3
Journalist	4	13.3
Teaching & Research Assistant	3	10
Director Amnesty International	1	3.3
IHS Markit Consultant	2	6.7
Number of Working Years
1–5	0	0
6–10	23	76.7
11–15	4	13.3
16–20	3	10

Note: Source: Field Data, 2022

Table 3. Summary of results for this study (n = 30)

Variables/Factors	Vertical Accountability
	Drivers	Limits	Benefits
FIDAI	X
RIT Act	X
Merit-based recruitment	X
Proper record keeping	X
Performance-based evaluation, training, development	X
Absence of corruption/conflict of interest	X
Presence of corruption		X
Presence of nepotism/patron-clientelism		X
Presence of conflict of interest		X
Lack of political commitment & participation		X
Inadequate resources		X
Weak complain/accountability mechanisms		X
Openness/fairness			X
Easy access to information			X
Effective/efficient utilization of resources			X
Increase in trust/confidence (legitimacy)			X
Enhance integrity			X

Notes: X = Yes impacts vertical accountability. Compiled by author(s) based on the analysis of the field data for this study

Relly, J. E. (2012). Examining a model of vertical accountability: A cross-national study of the influence of information access on the control of corruption. Government Information Quarterly, 29(3), 335–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2012.02.011

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

So, B. W. Y. (2014). Civic engagement in the performance evaluation of the public sector in China: Building horizontal accountability to enhance vertical accountability. Public Management Review, 16(3), 341–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2013.770055

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Mechkova, V., Lührmann, A., & Lindberg, S. I. (2019). The accountability sequence: From de-jure to de-facto constraints on governments. Studies in Comparative International Development, 54(1), 40–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12116-018-9262-5

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lührmann, A., Marquardt, K. L., & Mechkova, V. (2020). Constraining governments: New indices of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal accountability. The American Political Science Review, 114(3), 811–820. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420000222

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Schillemans, T. (2011). Does horizontal accountability work? Evaluating potential remedies for the accountability deficit of agencies. Administration & Society, 43(4), 387–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399711412931

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rajala, T., & Kokko, P. (2022). Biased by design–the case of horizontal accountability in a hybrid organization. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 35(3), 830–862. https://doi.org/10.1108/AAAJ-11-2019-4272

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Gelber, K. (2017). Diagonal accountability: Freedom of speech in Australia. Australian Journal of Human Rights, 23(2), 203–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/1323238X.2017.1363371

 Google Scholar

Laebens, M. G., & Lührmann, A. (2021). What halts democratic erosion? The changing role of accountability. Democratization, 28(5), 908–928. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2021.1897109

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bovens, M., Goodin, R. E., & Schillemans, T. (Eds.). (2014). The Oxford handbook public accountability. Oxford University Press.

 Google Scholar

Schillemans, T. (2015). Managing public accountability: How public managers manage public accountability. International Journal of Public Administration, 38(6), 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2014.949738

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Busuioc, E. M., & Lodge, M. (2016). The reputational basis of public accountability. Governance, 29(2), 247–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/gove.12161

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Thomann, E., Hupe, P., & Sager, F. (2018). Serving many masters: Public accountability in private policy implementation. Governance, 31(2), 299–319. https://doi.org/10.1111/gove.12297

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Fox, J., & Shotts, K. W. (2009). Delegates or trustees? A theory of political accountability. The Journal of Politics, 71(4), 1225–1237. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609990260

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nannicini, T., Stella, A., Tabellini, G., & Troiano, U. (2013). Social capital and political accountability. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 5(2), 222–250. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.5.2.222

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Danhoundo, G., Nasiri, K., & Wiktorowicz, M. E. (2018). Improving social accountability processes in the health sector in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 497. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5407-8

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Albanese, G., Galli, E., Rizzo, I., & Scaglioni, C. (2021). Transparency, civic capital and political accountability: A virtuous relation? Kyklos, 74(2), 155–169. https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12260

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Poulsen, B. (2009). Competing traditions of governance and dilemmas of administrative accountability: The case of Denmark. Public Administration, 87(1), 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9299.2008.00727.x

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Tan, L. K., & Egan, M. (2018). The public accountability value of a triple bottom line approach to performance reporting in the water sector. Australian Accounting Review, 28(2), 235–250. https://doi.org/10.1111/auar.12173

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Wang, X., Xiao, H., Yan, B., & Xu, J. (2021). New development: Administrative accountability and early responses during public health crises—lessons from Covid-19 in China. Public Money & Management, 41(1), 73–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540962.2020.1819012

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Banks, S. (2013). Negotiating personal engagement and professional accountability: Professional wisdom and ethics work. European Journal of Social Work, 16(5), 587–604. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691457.2012.732931

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ryder, J. (2015). Being professional: Accountability and authority in teachers’ responses to science curriculum reform. Studies in Science Education, 51(1), 87–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057267.2014.1001629

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Brummel, L. (2021). Social accountability between consensus and confrontation: Developing a theoretical framework for societal accountability relationships of public sector organizations. Administration & Society, 53(7), 1046–1077. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399720988529

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Shotter, J. (2019). Social accountability and the social construction of ‘you’ thirty years on. Murmurations: Journal of Transformative Systemic Practice, 2(1), 67–96. https://doi.org/10.28963/2.1.8

 Google Scholar

Brownell, K. D., Kersh, R., Ludwig, D. S., Post, R. C., Puhl, R. M., Schwartz, M. B., & Willett, W. C. (2010). Personal responsibility and obesity: A constructive approach to a controversial issue. Health Affairs, 29(3), 379–387. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2009.0739

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ahmed, A., & Jackson, J. (2021). Race, risk, and personal responsibility in the response to COVID-19. Columbia Law Review, 121(3), 47–70.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar