Digital hate speech and othering: The construction of hate speech from Malaysian perspectives

Figures & data

Table 1. Interview guide for online focus groups

No	Interview Guide	Explanation
1.	Do you own a social media account?	This question is really important to start a conversation that includes the main topic. It is also important to know what kind of person you are interviewing, whether she/he wants to give a great opinions
2.	How long have you been using social media?	This question is to know how well participants experience social media and understand the culture that happens all around social media.
3.	Have you experienced hate speech?	This question is really important to start a conversation that includes the main topic. It is also important to know what kind of person you are interviewing, whether she/he wants to give a great opinions
4.4	If yes, can you describe the hate speech and give an example?	- This question is asked to know if the respondent really knows and understands what is hate speech- Researches can also know what kind of hate speech has occurred among Malaysians. - Researches can also know what kind of hate speech has occurred among Malaysians.
5.	If not, can you still describe the hate speech and give an example?	- This question is asked to know if the respondent really knows and understands what is hate speech- Researchers can also know what kind of hate speech has occurred among Malaysians. - Researchers can also know what kind of hate speech has occurred among Malaysians.
6.	If the hate speech passes in your timeline, what do you do?	The purpose of this question is to know what users should do to handle hate speech. Should users block the account that promotes hate speech or just leave it like that.
7.	In your opinion, what are the intentions or factors that cause hate speech to occur?	This question can receive a short or long answer, it always depends on your respondents. They usually answer they do not know as it is not their behaviour, but researchers should encourage respondents to answer.
8.	What is the effect of hate speech?	Researchers will classify the answer from respondents by the effects such as developing mental illness or violence towards others.
9.	How to classify varying hate speech in Malaysia?	Participants will explain how they identify hate speech in the cyber world, especially social media like Twitter.
10.	Which group of the community finds (few words as example) as ‘innocently’ insensitive?	In Malaysia there are a lot of words that some communities find ‘innocently’ insensitive and researchers should give examples to make partipants understand the phrase.
11.	Do you find (example of words) offensive? Why?	Researchers need to know if participants find it offensive or sensitive to them.
12.	Which social media platforms are more conducive to the circulation of hateful racist material/messages? Please give the name and examples.	Social media has its own features to make users easy to use but for that reason, users also tend to incite and spread hate speech. Researchers ask participants to state which platform is more conducive for hate speech to be spread.
13.	What topics/issues tend to trigger racist or racially-loaded language?	Participants can express the issues that they consider can lead to racism or racially-loaded language in social media.
14.	Based on your observation, what are the words/terms that usually make you feel offended?	Researchers want to know what phrase or word or term is offensive to participants, and what the other participants think about it.
15.	Is hate speech only committed against races of people or it can be committed against groups of people? Explain.	In participants’ words, hate speech is mainly expressed towards some races or against a group of people or else. Researchers want to delve into who is targetted in hate speech crime on cyberworld.
16.	What do you recommend that hate speech victims do to ease the pain after the incident occurs?	Participants can advise some “first-aid” after receiving hate speech in order to ease the pain of being a hate speech victim.
17.	What were your experiences when reporting racist hate speech to Twitter?	Researchers need participants to share their experience on reporting racist hate crimes in social media like Twitter.
18.	Do you know about Sebenarnya.my?	Researchers want to know if there are any participants who know about government initiatives on reporting hate crime in cyberworld.
19.	Do you have experience using Sebenarnya.my? Explain.	If they know, how about experiencing those initiatives in order to report hate speech in social media like Twitter.
20.	How to control this negative behaviour, what are the methods?	Respondents should give their ideas, how to control and stop hate speech as it can have a really bad effect.

Figure 1. Comparisons from a review of the literature.

Table 2. 0: Term of hate speech from Focus Group Discussion

	FGD 1	FGD 2	FGD 3
Term Of Hate Speech	Astaghfirullah hal Adzim. Suara itu aurat	Keling	Bodoh
		Cina	Youre useless
		Meleis	Oi Cina makan babi!
		Sakai	Ha you makan lembu sebab tu lah you macam lembu!
		Jakun	attention seeker