Exploring complex diglossia in Javanese society

Figures & data

Figure 1. Linguistic Landscape in Java and its Surroundings (Source: Ministry of Education and Culture, 2019).

Figure 2. The Sociolinguistic Stratification of Javanese Language Varieties Based on Sugiri’s et al. (2001) Findings.

Table 1. Examples of code-switching in Javanese community (Azis & Rahmawati, 2021; Saddiyah & Rokhman, 2018; Purnamasari & Sholichah, 2022; Sutarsih, 2016; Sawe & Adhani, 2020; Sudarsono, 2021; Melati & Assidik, 2022; Rizkyna et al., 2021)

Context	Verbatim Speech	Purpose of Switching
School Setting	‘Selamat pagi, bagaimana kabare nak anak?’ Translation: ‘Good morning, how are you students?’ (Source: Azis & Rahmawati, 2021)	To inquiry about students’ condition or well-being in a friendly and caring tone using Javanese Ngoko term (kabare). It is also accompanied with non-standard Indonesian term, ‘nak anak’, which is a bit more colloquial and affectionate. ‘nak’ being an endearing term for a child, often used in more informal or familial contexts.
	‘Buku nopo, Bu?’ Translation: ‘Which book, Ma’am?’ (Source: Saddiyah & Rokhman, 2018)	To convey respect to a teacher by using a polite Javanese term (nopo). ‘Nopo’ is a Javanese Kromo term means ‘which’.
	‘Gon apa, Difa? Bocae nang kantin’. Translation: ‘What happened, Difa? The child is at the canteen’. (Source: Saddiyah & Rokhman, 2018)	To facilitate informal, comfortable communication among students in non-formal school settings. In this sentence, there are several Javanese Tegal Ngoko terms that can be found, including ‘Gon apa’ which means ‘What happened,’ ‘Bocae’ refers to ‘the child,’ and ‘nang kantin’ means ‘at the canteen’.
	‘Aku njaluk minum ya?’ Translation: ‘I’m asking for a drink, okay?’ (Source: Purnamasari & Sholichah, 2022)	To make a request for a drink using Javanese Ngoko term (njaluk) in informal conversations. Further, the use of ‘ya’ at the end serves as a gentle, informal way to seek affirmation or agreement from the listener. This sentence is typical in casual, everyday conversations between friends where the speaker wants to express their need or desire in a courteous manner.
	‘Sekarang halaman berapa ngaji ne?’ Translation: ‘What page are we on for the recitation now?’ (Source: Purnamasari & Sholichah, 2022)	To ascertain the current page number for a reading or recitation activity, usually within friends in the context of a religious or educational setting. The term ‘ngaji ne’ uses Javanese Ngoko level which is the informal and casual speech level.
	‘Oh, kirain wes azan ta, kamu mau ke masjid?’ Translation: ‘Oh, I thought it was already time for the call to prayer, are you going to the mosque?’ (Source: Sutarsih, 2016)	To express a mistaken assumption. The usage of ‘wes’ (already) and ‘kirain’ (I thought) is informal, indicative of the Ngoko level of Javanese, which is used in casual conversation among friends or family.
Community Setting	‘Saya nomor urutan pinten Sus?’ Translation: ‘What is my order number, Sus?’ (Source: Sawe & Adhani, 2020)	To politely ask for quantity or position using Javanese Kromo term, ‘pinten’, which is similar to ‘how many’ or ‘which number’ in English. The use of ‘Sus’ is a colloquial and familiar way of addressing someone, likely short for ‘suster’ (nurse), indicating that the speaker may be in a hospital or clinic setting.
	‘Dereng Bu, biasanya jam lima baru buka’. Translation: ‘Not yet, Ma’am, it usually opens at five’. (Source: Sawe & Adhani, 2020)	To inform the other person that the place in question typically opens at five. The sentence uses Javanese Kromo term (dereng), suggests a polite conversation, potentially with someone of higher social status or someone the speaker wishes to show respect to (for example, customer).
	‘Elha lagi turu. Ojo diganggu’. Translation: ‘Elha is sleeping. Don’t disturb him’. (Source: Sudarsono, 2021)	To convey a request or reminder to respect the person’s rest and not interrupt their sleep. The sentence uses two Javanese Ngoko terms, ‘turu’ (sleep) and ‘Ojo’ (Don’t), indicating that the conversation takes place among close friends, family members, or in relaxed settings.
	‘Dia bilang ngangluh waktu kemarin saya telpon’. Translation: ‘He/She complained when I called him yesterday’. (Source: Sudarsono, 2021)	To convey someone’s reaction or feeling (annoyance) to a past event using Javanese Ngoko term, ‘ngangluh’ (complain), indicating that the conversation has been done in casual settings.
Social Media Setting	‘Mugo menang foto senja terbaik’. Translation: ‘Wishing to win the award for best sunset photo’. (Source: Melati & Assidik, 2022)	To express goodwill and hope for success using Javanese Ngoko term, ‘mugo’ (hope or wish), which is the informal and casual speech level typically used among friends, family, or in casual settings.
	‘Melihat kebersamaan mereka jalan-jalan nang ndeso ikutan happy’. Translation: ‘Seeing them walking together in the village makes me happy too’. (Source: Rizkyna et al., 2021)	To convey a feeling of joy or contentment using Javanese Ngoko terms, including ‘nang’ (preposition that is roughly equivalent to ‘at’ or ‘in’ in English), and ‘ndeso’ (village or rural area)
	‘Cah pinter tenan iki..salut sama pemikirannya anak muda yang penuh semangat’. Translation: ‘This kid is really smart… respect for the thoughts of a young person full of enthusiasm’. (Source: Rizkyna et al., 2021)	To show admiration or commendation in a comfortable and informal mode of communication using Javanese Ngoko term, such as, ‘iki’ (this), ‘cah’ (kid or young person), ‘pinter’ (smart or intelligent), and ‘tenan’ is an emphasis word (similar to really or truly). In the sentence, the term ‘cah’ is typically used by individuals who speak the Mataraman dialect of the Javanese language, indicating its regional linguistic characteristics.
	‘Plonga plongo, eh ga kerasa bentar lagi tahun baru’. Translation: ‘Feeling dumbfounded, oh how time flies, it’s almost New Year’. (Source: Rizkyna et al., 2021)	To convey a sense of surprise or realization about how quickly time has passed in an informal tone using Javanese Ngoko term, ‘plonga plongo’ (an expression denoting a state of being dazed or lost in thought); and non-standard Indonesian, such as ‘eh’ (an interjection similar to ‘oh’ in English, often used to express realization or surprise), ‘ga kerasa’ (doesn’t feel like or unrealized), and ‘bentar lagi’ (soon or in a short while).
	‘Siapa kira-kira yang melindungi? Saya jadi ber takon takon’ Translation: ‘Who might be protecting? I end up wondering’. (Source: Rizkyna et al., 2021)	To express curiosity or uncertainty using Ngoko Javanese (takon) in informal situation, leading to a state of contemplation or pondering.

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